Conflict and agriculture have a long, shared history. The purpose of this research is to look at the relationships between agriculture, agricultural technologies, and conflict during current and recent conflicts, large scale and localized. Agriculture and its related technologies are often affected by conflict, but rarely acknowledged as a cause or solution to conflict. Literature reviews in six topic areas illustrate various facets of the relationship between agriculture and conflict. Research conducted in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala illustrates the ways farmers were impacted by the country’s civil war. It also examines farmer survival strategies during the war, and reveals the presence of minor localized conflict over water resources. Conflict over land is not a major concern at present. Market access for inputs and outputs are shown to have been a problem for a number of farmers during the civil war. The poverty of Santa Cruz farmers indicates that much could be gained by rural development. Research is unable to support the hypotheses that agricultural technologies have prevented or caused conflict in Santa Cruz del Quiché, or that they have played a large role in recovery from the country’s civil war. The author recommends that future research be undertaken in regions with a diverse set of agricultural technologies, and/or a recent history of significant technological change in agriculture. Policy recommendations include providing secure access to markets during war time, increasing capacity for home-based rural production, and continuing research into resilient crops. Finally, the author suggests that the responsible decision to develop, adopt, or introduce an agricultural technology must take into account the social consequences of that decision, including how the new technology may alleviate or contribute to conflict.

My project examines the legacy of the Gettysburg Address from 1863 to 1965. After an introduction and a chapter setting the stage, each succeeding chapter surveys the meaning of the Gettysburg Address at key moments: the initial reception of the speech in 1863; its status during the semi-centennial in 1913 and during the construction of the Lincoln Memorial; the place it held during the world wars; and the transformation of the Address in the late 1950s and early 1960s marked by the confluence of the Cold War, Civil Rights Movement, Lincoln Birth Sesquicentennial, and Civil War Centennial. My final chapter considers how interpretations of the Address changed in textbooks from 1900 to 1965, and provides the entire trajectory of the evolving meanings of the speech in one medium and in one chapter. For each time period I have analyzed what the Address meant to people living in four cities: Gettysburg, Richmond, New York, and London. My argument is twofold. First, rather than operating as a national document the Gettysburg Address has always held different meanings in the North and South. Given that the speech addressed questions central to the United States (equality and democracy), this lack of a common interpretation illustrates that there was no singular collective memory or national identity regarding core values. Second, as the nation and world shifted, so did the meaning of the Gettysburg Address. Well into the twentieth-century the essence of the speech was proclaimed to be its support of the democratic form of government as opposed to monarchies or other institutions. But in the middle twentieth-century that interpretation began to shift, with many both abroad and at home beginning to see the speech’s assertion of human equality as its focal point and most important contribution.

After the Civil War, the government needed to send an occupation force into Texas to help rebuild the state government and confront the French Imperialist forces that had invaded Mexico. Unfortunately, the government was required to use volunteers because the Regular Army was not yet prepared to handle such a mission. Using citizen soldiers for peacetime occupation was a break from past military tradition, and the men did not appreciate such an act. Historians of Reconstruction Texas have focused on state politics, the rampant violence in the state throughout this period, and the role of freedmen in situating themselves to an uncertain and hostile society. Studies of the military in post-Civil War Texas have examined the army’s role in the state’s political reconstruction, but largely ignore the soldiers. Additionally, these works tend to over-generalize the experience and relations of the troops and Texans. This thesis looks at Western citizen soldiers, comprising the Fourth and Thirteenth Army Corps as well as two cavalry divisions, stationed in Texas after the war from the Rio Grande to San Antonio to Marshall. Beginning with the unit’s receiving official orders to proceed to Texas after the surrender of the principal Confederate forces in 1865, it follows the movements from wartime positions in Tennessee and Alabama to peacetime posts within Texas. The study examines Texan-soldier relations as they differed from place to place. It also investigates the Westerners’ peacetime occupation duties and the conditions endured in Texas. The thesis argues that there was diversity in both the Western volunteers’ experiences and relations with occupied Texans, and it was not as monolithic as past historians have suggested. Specifically, this study endeavors to supplement the existing historiography of the army in Texas during Reconstruction. Broadly, this thesis also hopes to be a more general look at the use of citizen soldiers for postwar occupation duty.

<p>There is a great variety of research about civil war and peacemaking. This thesis also deals with those topics, however, it focuses on one specific area about how different third-party interveners affect the duration of civil war.</p><p>Since the main goal of an intervention is to terminate the civil war as fast as possible, it is of great importance to be able to know which type of intervener can terminate it fastest. Throughout the modern history third-party interveners have been a mix of international organizations and major- and minor powers. These different types of interveners and what characterize them will here be discussed, compared and analyzed.</p><p>From a data set containing information about all civil wars between 1945 and 1999 six conflicts have been chosen for further examination. Two of the civil wars are wars where an international organisation was the intervener, two conflicts where major powers where the interveners and two where minor powers where the intervener. These six civil wars are viewed upon with characteristics of the conflict and intervener as basis.</p><p>Important to take into account is the aspect when international organizations in general tend to intervene. A scholar, Regan, pointed out that international organizations tend to intervene in already long lasting civil wars where states have chosen not to intervene or have failed. The result in this thesis shows that depending upon how forceful the intervention is, the shorter the duration of the civil war will be. What shows how forcefull an intervention can be is how strong the intervener is, on which side the intervention takes place and which strategy it choses.</p> / <p>Det finns en uppsjö av akademisk forskning om inbördeskrig och fredskapande. Denna uppsats avhandlar också dessa ämnen men fokus ligger istället på ett speciellt område; hur olika typer av interventionsparter påverkar längden av inbördeskrig.</p><p>Målet med en intervention är att få slut på inbördeskriget så fort som möjligt. För att kunna nå det målet så är det av yttersta vikt att ha kunskap om vilken typ av interventionsparter som gör det snabbast. Interventionsparterna har sedan den moderna tiden varit internationella organisationer, stormakter och småstater. I denna uppsats kommer de olika typerna att diskuteras, jämföras och analyseras. Allt för att sedan kunna dra slutsatser om vad som karaktäriserar dem och vad de har för inflytande på längden av inbördeskrig.</p><p>I uppsatsen kommer sex olika inbördeskrig att analyseras. Dessa fall är hämtade från ett data set som innehåller information om alla inbördeskrig mellan åren 1945 och 1999. Två utav inbördeskrigen är krig där en internationel organisation var interventionspart.</p><p>I två andra inbördeskrig är interventionsparten en stormakt och i de resterande två inbördeskrigen är interventionsparten en småstat. Dessa sex inbördeskrig är sedan analyserade med hjälp av karaktären utav kriget och typen av interventionspart.</p><p>En viktig aspekt för analysen rör internationella organisationer och när de gör interventioner. En forskare, Regan, påpekar att internationella organisationer tenderar att intervenera i inbördeskrig som redan har pågått under en längre tid och där enskilda stater har valt att inte ingripa eller har misslyckats. Analysen i denna uppsats visar att beroende på hur kraftfull interventionen är desto kortare blir längden utav inbördeskriget. Vad som avgör vad som är kraftfullt är hur stark interventionsparten är, vilken sida interventionen sker på och vilken strategi som används.</p>

Human excrement is seldom considered to be an integral part of the human condition. Despite the relative silence regarding it, however, excrement has played a significant role in American history. Today the U.S. has more than two million miles of sewer pipes underneath it. Every year Americans flush more than a trillion gallons of water and fertilizer down the toilet, and farmers spend billions of dollars to buy artificial fertilizer. Furthermore, excrement is bound up in many complicated power relationships regarding race, gender, and ethnicity. This dissertation examines the period in American history, from the Civil War through the Progressive Era, when excrement transformed from commodity to waste. More specifically, it examines the cultural and social factors that led to its formulation as waste and the roles it played in the histories of American health, architecture, and imperialism. The first chapter assesses the vast changes to the country’s infrastructure and social fabric beginning in the late nineteenth century. On the subterranean level, much of America’s immense network of sewers was constructed during this era—making it one of the largest public works projects in U.S. history. Above ground, the United States Sanitary Commission, founded at the onset of the Civil War, commenced a widespread creation of sanitary commissions in municipalities, regions, and even internationally, that regulated defecation habits. Chapter Two assesses the social and architectural change that occurred as the toilet moved from the outhouse to inside the house—specifically, how awkwardly newly built homes accommodated this novel room and how the toilet’s move inside actually hastened its removal. The third chapter shifts focus to the way Americans considered their excrement in relation to their body in a time when efficiency a great virtue. Americans feared ailments related to “autointoxication” (constipation) and went to absurd lengths to rid their bodies of excrement. The fourth chapter analyzes the way excrement was racialized and the role it had in the various projects of American imperialism. The colonial subjects and potential American citizens—from Native Americans to Cubans, Filipinos, and Puerto Ricans—were regularly scrutinized, punished, and re-educated regarding their defecation habits. / text

This ‘practice-informed’ doctorate research is the beginning of a creative investigation, integration and unification of theory and practice as a method of analysis of ideas about my performances, and the context it emerged from: my experiences of the postcolonial and intercultural relationship between Angola and Britain. It focuses on the trajectories of the self that are ‘re-invented’ as a process of evolution and as a result of migration and dislocation in the British diaspora. It looks deeply at the complex interplay of my practice of body painting, as a symbolic ritual and dance in relation to notions of “origin” and “identity” and other sources of influences. The roots of Angolan cultural traditions and the veneration of the Angolan ancestral spirit when I perform play an important part in my work and this research strives to simplify my ideas of body and spirit, material and aesthetic. However, this research analyses, investigates and interrogates Angolan contemporary arts and artists and the progress of their practice in the Britain postcolonial and intercultural setting. At the core of this research is a comparative interrogation of contemporary art practices, artists and their influences on my work in order to contextualise my own practice and its implications and generative potential. I describe the main artists that influenced my practice (Pablo Picasso, ean- ichael as uiat and ela ansome ni ulapo-Kuti compare my or ith the or s of other non- estern artists oco usco, uillermo me - e a and ani-Kayode) who work with reference to ancient traditions as a fictional and racial identity. Furthermore, it is suggested by Gen Doy that artists working with ancient traditions and producing these types of works in the west are stereotyped and their works are considered backward and unsophisticated; their or s suffered and continue to suffer “discrimination on the grounds of race…” Doy, 2000: 15 n other words, this takes place when these artists attempt to present their works in mainstream western galleries, shows and festivals. I argue that much ancient Angolan tradition has lost its voices through the process of modernisation, civilisation, colonialism and capitalism. The key issue I am addressing is that my performances and the or s of these artists use the body to explore notions of ‘primitivism’ and ‘ethnicity’ and ritual to address personal and cultural concerns. In this light, through the dialectics of practice and theory, this thesis is searching for more attention to be paid to or s derived from concepts of ‘primitivism’ and ‘tribalism’ that are considered inferior ithin the estern parameters of modern art. At the very core of this thesis, propose that the practice of body painting and ‘primitivism’ and ‘tribalism’ are under recognised in the west because of western ideas of racial superiority, civilisation and colonialism (Darwinism).

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The Industrial Revolution created sweeping cultural and technological changes in 19th century American society. During this era, nursing evolved from an unskilled to a skilled form of work. Changes in manufacturing, communication, and transportation occurred differentially in America, which favored the growth of different regional economies. Sectionalism erupted into the first modern war in American history. The Civil War created the conditions in which nursing, medicine, and the hospital formed organizational structures, roles, and boundaries that would later form the template for the modern healthcare system. The purpose of this research was to study how the context and culture of mid-nineteenth century American life affected the evolution of nursing during the Civil War, and the later affect it would have on skilled nursing knowledge, roles, education, and practice. The overall goal of the work is to contribute to the body of research on parallel historic processes that had an influence over the formation of early skilled nursing practice and the evolution of the nursing role. The effect of parallel processes associated with the Industrial Revolution and the advent of modern warfare on the development of skilled nursing were the particular focus of this research. A social history methodology was utilized to examine texts and discourse from the Civil War period. It was found that advances in transportation, communication, and manufacturing were both integral to the advent of modern war and modern nursing, and that the advent of these was highly integrated. It was also found that the industrialization of the hospital in response to wartime was highly influential on the development of skilled nursing programs later in the century. The role that nurses would take in the postbellum hospital, however, reflected the mass media image of nursing generated during the war rather than actual wartime practice.

I explore nationalism within popular United States' history and analyze the nationalistic rhetoric within a popular novel, film, television documentary, and computer game that use the Battle of Gettysburg as their subject. With these examples I argue that popular history and entertainment cultivate social conditions amenable to war. Rather than strictly focusing on overtly and officially sanctioned political arguments, I interrogate recurring defenses of United States' nationalism within popular history and entertainment using the concepts of sociological propaganda and collective memory to further my argument. By focusing on popular representations of a seminal event in United States' history, I contend that such an event has been used to affirm nationalistic hegemony in the present.