La métaphore digestive est employée depuis l'Antiquité dans le cadre de la réflexion théorique sur l'art et la pensée. Notre objectif a été de l'utiliser pour étudier le phénomène théâtral contemporain, notamment tel qu'il se présente sur la scène française depuis les années 2000. En partant de l'approche psychanalytique du travail créateur par Didier Anzieu, nous considérons les processus de création et réception d'une œuvre scénique comme les deux mises en actes d'un même processus commun qui les contient en puissance : le processus digestivo-poïétique. À travers l'articulation entre le code et le « corps » de l'œuvre, les instances scéniques et spectatorielles sont configurées, au niveau individuel et collectif, au sein d'un appareil digestivo-poïétique à plusieurs niveaux. Après l'interprétation des évolutions majeures du théâtre depuis la fin du xixe siècle à travers la métaphore digestive, l'étude d'œuvres scéniques particulières nous permet d'explorer la métaphore du vomissement (Bailey, Liddell, García), de la digestion (Bauchau, Orlin, Payen, Nguyên Thi, Régy) ou de l'excrétion (Collectif Marthe, Artaud). Dans une approche en lien avec la sémiotique, la philosophie, la psychanalyse et les études théâtrales, nous définissons notamment les concepts d'irruption (sémiotisation en-dehors de l'œuvre, en lien avec les archives intimes des artistes), d'éruption (rejet de l'œuvre), de rumination (sémiotisation en plusieurs fois, à l'intérieur de l'œuvre), d'évacuation (mise de côté des signes inutiles pour l'écriture du texte spectaculaire) et de rétention (conservation des signes inutiles). En abordant la poïétique et l'esthétique à travers un même processus digestivo-poïétique, nous proposons d'interpréter les affinités des artistes et des spectateurs avec les œuvres scéniques d'un point de vue organique. À partir de là, nous ouvrons à une approche diététique du théâtre au niveau poétique et éthique. / Since antiquity, the metaphor of digestion has been used to theorize about art and thinking. Our goal was to use it in order to study the contemporary theatrical phenomenon, especially as it appears on the French stage since the 2000s. In relationship to the psychoanalytical approach of the creative process by Didier Anzieu, we consider the processes of creation and reception of a theatrical performance as two different enactments of the same common process: the digestivo-poietic process. Through the articulation between the code and the « body » of the work, the interactions within and between stage and audience are configured, at an individual and a collective level, as a digestivo-poietic tract with several levels. After interpreting some of the major evolutions of the theatre since the end of the xixth century through the digestive metaphor, the study of particular performance works allows us to explore the metaphor of the vomiting (Bailey, Liddell, García), of the digestion (Bauchau, Orlin, Payen, Nguyên Thi, Régy) or of the excretion (Collectif Marthe, Artaud). In an approach related to semiotics, philosophy, psychoanalysis and the theatre studies, we namely define the concepts of irruption (semiotization outside of the work, in connection with the intimate archives of the artists), eruption (rejection of the work), rumination (semiotization in several steps, inside the work), evacuation (to put aside the signs that are useless for the writing of the spectacular text) and retention (to keep the useless signs). By approaching the poietic and the esthetics through the same digestivo-poietic process, we suggest interpreting the affinities of the artists and the spectators with the performance works from an organic point of view. Then, our reflection can be considered a way to foster a dietary approach to the theatre as far as poetics and ethics are concerned.

Human excrement is seldom considered to be an integral part of the human condition. Despite the relative silence regarding it, however, excrement has played a significant role in American history. Today the U.S. has more than two million miles of sewer pipes underneath it. Every year Americans flush more than a trillion gallons of water and fertilizer down the toilet, and farmers spend billions of dollars to buy artificial fertilizer. Furthermore, excrement is bound up in many complicated power relationships regarding race, gender, and ethnicity. This dissertation examines the period in American history, from the Civil War through the Progressive Era, when excrement transformed from commodity to waste. More specifically, it examines the cultural and social factors that led to its formulation as waste and the roles it played in the histories of American health, architecture, and imperialism. The first chapter assesses the vast changes to the country’s infrastructure and social fabric beginning in the late nineteenth century. On the subterranean level, much of America’s immense network of sewers was constructed during this era—making it one of the largest public works projects in U.S. history. Above ground, the United States Sanitary Commission, founded at the onset of the Civil War, commenced a widespread creation of sanitary commissions in municipalities, regions, and even internationally, that regulated defecation habits. Chapter Two assesses the social and architectural change that occurred as the toilet moved from the outhouse to inside the house—specifically, how awkwardly newly built homes accommodated this novel room and how the toilet’s move inside actually hastened its removal. The third chapter shifts focus to the way Americans considered their excrement in relation to their body in a time when efficiency a great virtue. Americans feared ailments related to “autointoxication” (constipation) and went to absurd lengths to rid their bodies of excrement. The fourth chapter analyzes the way excrement was racialized and the role it had in the various projects of American imperialism. The colonial subjects and potential American citizens—from Native Americans to Cubans, Filipinos, and Puerto Ricans—were regularly scrutinized, punished, and re-educated regarding their defecation habits. / text

Iodine content in excrement. Calibre was locate from 430 {$\pm$} 142,4 {$\mu$}g {$\bullet$} kg-1 bis 6182,5 {$\pm$} 2625,6 {$\mu$}g {$\bullet$} kg-1 dry matter and average 2299,2 {$\pm$} 884,3 {$\mu$}g . kg-1 dry matter. Relation was low from between idoine content in excrement and iodine reception. Environment was not contaminate.

Introduction. Ecological farming occupies a special position among various technologies in agriculture. It is based on modern, environment friendly technologies which do not use synthetic chemical substances (fertilizers, pesticides, drugs, growth enhancers, etc.), but use their substitutes instead. Ecological rabbit breeding is a novelty in Lithuania; however, the observations prove that the number of those willing to run such farms is increasing. The conditions of rabbit keeping must be as close to natural as possible to assure that the wellbeing and health requirements for the animals are fulfilled. Rabbits must have a possibility to move freely, satisfy their instincts. Goal of research. The research aims to study the digestibility of nutrients in rations used for feeding rabbits with ecological feedstuffs. Method of research. The research has been carried out at the vivariums of Lithuanian Veterinary Academy using New Zealand rabbit breed. To study digestibility 3 groups were formed, 10 rabbits aged 60days were selected from each group. The rabbits were kept in individual cages and had sufficient of water. The same feedstuffs as on ecological farms were used. The research consisted of the following stages: 1. Adaptation (duration – 3 days); 2. Preparatory stage (duration – 5 days); 3. Collection of faeces and stale (duration – 5 days). Review of research data. The crude protein and raw fat in ration perform a specific function of life-support and production, in case of... [to full text]

Target of this diploma work was with one another confront energy, material and working heftiness of clearance excrement cattle in cattle house technologies and subsequently storage and application excrement cattle.

Fosfor är ett nödvändigt näringsämne inom jordbruket, trots detta är vi på väg att använda upp den fosfor vi har tillgång till i marken. Denna studie har därför valt att fokusera på en stor källa till fosfor som inte tas till vara på i många av dagens samhällen: mänsklig avföring. Många samhällen har genom historien använt mänsklig avföring som en resurs, bland annat som gödsel vid matodling, vilket återför en stor del av fosforn till marken. I dagens samhällen ses mänsklig avföring som någonting oönskat och äckligt. Vad är det som skapat denna ovilja att använda denna källa till fosfor? Varför slutade samhällen använda mänsklig avföring som gödsel vid matodling? Syftet med denna studie är att belysa de anledningar som ligger bakom att människor slutar att använda mänsklig avföring vid odling av mat. En tematisk analys, och utvalda delar av en komparativ analys, har använts för att analysera lämpligt publicerat material. Denna analys har skapat resultatet som sedan har ställts mot studiens teoretiska ramverk vilket inkluderar: människans syn på sin egen avföring, smuts och renhet, och mänsklig avföring som resurs. Studiens resultat tyder på att det främst är en accelererad urbanisering och en modernisering av samhället som leder till att människor slutar att använda mänsklig avföring som gödsel inom matodling. Människans syn på renhet ställs mot synen av mänsklig avföring som en resurs. Valet att använda mänsklig avföring eller ej styrs av den kulturella uppfattningen om vad som är rent och smutsigt. När de negativa associationerna kring mänsklig avföring överväger de positiva så leder det till att människor tar avstånd från mänsklig avföring trots att exkrementer fortfarande skulle kunna användas som en resurs. / Phosphorus is an essential nutrient in agriculture, despite this fact we are well on our way to using up the phosphorus we have access to in the ground. This study has therefore focused on a major source of phosphorus that is not taken into consideration in a vast majority of today’s societies: human excrement. Many countries have used human excreta as a resource throughout history, including as a fertilizer when producing food, which ensured that a major part of the phosphorus was returned to the soil. In societies today human excrement is viewed as something unwanted and disgusting. What is it that makes humans hesitant to use this source of phosphorus? Why did societies stop using human excrement as a fertilizer when growing food? The purpose of this study is to examine the underlying causes for why people stop using human excrement as a fertilizer when producing food. A thematic analysis, combined with selected parts of a comparative analysis, has been used to analyze apt publicized material. This analysis has resulted in the study’s result, which has then been pitted against the theoretical framework for this study. The theoretical framework includes: people’s view of their own excreta, dirt and cleanliness, and human excreta as a resource. The result suggests that it primarily is an increased urbanization and a modernization of society that leads people to stop using human excrement as a fertilizer when producing food. Human perception of purity is pitched against the view of human excrement as a resource. The choice of using human excrement or not is governed by the cultural perception of what is clean and what is dirty. When the negative associations connected to human excrement outweigh the positive, then humans distance themselves from it, even though the excrement could still be used as a resource.

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This thesis analyses individual and societal relations to human excrement by looking at historical and contemporary examples of symbolics and management systems of human shit and piss. It furthermore connects urban culture to a particular type of perception of the meaning of human waste. End-of-pipe, large scale sewerage solutions for densely populated areas and cities are analysed for their historical origins and contemporary ramifications, and contrasted with examples of classical, mediaeval, early modern and contemporary times in different regions of Europe and India. The cases were presented in a non-chronological order to avoid simple narratives of progress. The focus is on questions of agricultural recycling of excrement and the relevance of human waste for public health issues. Analytical tools during the cross-temporal and cross-cultural case comparison are the categorisations of human excrement as e.g. waste, threat or resource, the technique of dualism-deterritorialisation and occasionally the Entanglement approach. Main results are that the large-scale introduction of sewerage systems in European cities around the world coincides with urbanisation and industrialisation, that pre-industrial dense settlement faced essentially the same excrement management challenges as modern cities do and that the stability of certain management systems has been severely influenced by factors such as power structures, paradigms of purity and piety as well as economic developments. The future relevance of this topic is seen in the predicted rise of urban regions worldwide, but especially in the developing world, a development which is expected to complicate human excrement management issues considerably.

Concept à la mode depuis quelques décennies, l’écotourisme s’est érigé comme le produit phare des parcs nationaux en régions forestières. Avec la création en 2007 du «Parc Amazonien de Guyane », les Wayana, comme les autres communautés traditionnelles autochtones, n’ont pas échappé au discours lié au développement durable de leur territoire ainsi qu’à la question de l’écotourisme. Mais quelle est la réalité d’un tel concept dans le contexte du tiers sud guyanais, enclavé, dominé par des identités culturelles fortes et marqué par une activité aurifère clandestine et criminelle ? Cette étude s’intéresse particulièrement à la dynamique culturelle et aux tentatives de maintien d’une identité culturelle, dans une société en pleine transition. Afin d’étudier le changement social et culturel, j’ai observé le mode de vie des indiens de l’intérieur de la Guyane tel qu’il se présente aujourd’hui en référence à ce qu’il était hier. Il ressort de notre étude que bien qu’attirés par la modernité, les indiens dépendent toujours des ressources de la nature et se préoccupent de maintenirleur identité. Les moyens de prélever les ressources ont certes évolué, mais ils demeurent au fond non agressifs àl’environnement et à la biodiversité parce que, ces sociétés ont opéré elles-mêmes des choix qui leur permettent de minimiser leur impact négatif sur l’environnement. Il y a donc dans ces sociétés une préoccupation de gestion durable des ressources. On le perçoit aisément dans l’agriculture itinérante, dans la pêche à la nivrée où, après exploitation et prélèvement de la ressource, la zone exploitée est laissée à l’abandon pour sa régénération. La recherche d’un compromis endogène entre un mode de vie traditionnel et un mode de vie moderne est significative à l’observation et à l’analyse de l’évolution de la structure de l’habitat amérindien. Optant aujourd’hui de plus en plus pour un habitat avec parois, cloisonné et recouvert non plus d’une simple toiture végétale mais de tôles ondulées, les Wayana ne renoncent pas pour autant au carbet-hamac, ni à la prohibition des déjections en terre ferme, c’est-à-dire le lieu où vivent les hommes. Les Indiens, dans leur tradition, utilisent les cours d’eau comme des lieux d’aisance. Notre étude montre que cette coutume est répandue chez tous les indiens de l’intérieur de la Guyane parce qu’elle va au-delà d’une simple préoccupation hygiénique et physiologique. Dans ce système culturel, cette coutume n’est pas déterminée systématiquement par l’environnement naturel. Elle obéit avant tout à une logique écologique propre à ces microsociétés, puis à une nécessite de distinguer nettement deux univers : l’univers des animaux et l’univers des hommes. Ainsi, dans lalogique interne des Wayana, ce sont des animaux sauvages qui font leurs déjections à même le sol, tandis que l’homme pour se distinguer a choisi de faire des cours d’eau ses lieux d’aisance privilégiés. Mais, face au changement imposé par le monde extérieur (sédentarisation, croissance démographique, prestations sociales..), la cohérence interne du modèle social et culturel des Wayana est plus que menacé. Dès lors, la mise en oeuvre de l’écotourisme s’apparente à une confrontation de logiques ; un ensemble de logiques exogènes, véhiculé par ses développeurs et ses promoteurs, et unensemble de logiques endogènes véhiculé par les populations autochtones traditionnelles en cohérence avec leur vision holistique du monde, aboutissant soit à des formes de compromis, soit à des formes d’antagonismes objectant toute forme de négociation. / A fashionable concept for some decades, « ecotourism » has been selected as the leading product for National Parks and large forests areas. With the opening, in 2007, of the “Amazonian park of Guyana “, the “Wayana”, like other local traditional communities, have not escaped from theories related to sustainable development as well as the “ecotourism”. But what reality stands behind such a concept in the southern part of Guyana, geographically isolated, and under the influence of strong cultural identities and a clandestine and criminal gold extraction activity. The current study tries to understand the cultural movement and their ambition to maintain a cultural identity, in a society in complete transition. In order to study the social and cultural changes, the author has observed the Indians way of life in the heart of Guyana today, as opposed as to how it was yesterday. Our study points out that, although very interested by the modern world, Indians still depend on natural resources and are concerned with the preservation of their identity. Their ways of using resources have certainly evolved, but they remain basically respectful of the environment and biodiversity because these societies function in order to minimize any negative impacts on their environment. These societies are therefore concerned with the management of their resources in a durable way. It’s easily perceivable in the itinerant agriculture, also in the fishing “à la nivrée”, where the area is left unexploited for regeneration after resources have been used. The search for an endogen compromise between a traditional way of life and a modern one is quite significant when one observes and analyzes the evolution of the Amerindian habitat. Opting more and more for buildings with partitions and separations, not just covered with basic vegetable roofs but with metallic material, the “Wayana” have not abandoned the use of “carbet-hamoc”, nor of open air toilets where the population live. Indians, traditionally, use streams as toilets. Our study shows that this custom is the same for all Indians living in the interior territories of Guyana, because it goes beyond a simple hygienic and physiological concern. In their cultural system, this rule is not systematically imposed by the natural environment. It’s governed above all by an ecological logic, pertinent to these micro societies, followed by the necessity to clearly identify two different worlds: the animal world and the human world. According to internal “Wayana” logic, it is only wild animals that use the ground for their excretions, whilst human beings, in order to distinguish themselves, use streams. But, facing changes brought about by the external world (sedentary life, demographic expansion, social care…), the internal coherence of the social and cultural model of the “Wayana” is in jeopardy. Installing a culture of “ecotourism” therefore seems to confront logics: one set of exogenous logics brought on by its promoters and another set of endogenous logics maintained by the autochthon traditional populations fitting with their holistic vision of the universe, leading either to some form of compromise or to antagonist attitudes opposed to any type of negotiation.

Building on recent scholarship in the history of art which has started to reappraise the meaning of grotesque and scatological motifs, this thesis examines how digestion was conceived of as a model of creation, and how this was translated visually. Renaissance creativity was increasingly modelled on a series of natural processes like digestion, following a trend in favour of Aristotelian psychology. However, it has been largely overlooked in comparison to the bleeding, the pneumatic, and especially the procreative natural models, which have been extensively studied. The central argument of this thesis is that digestion constituted an alternative-albeit less 'decorous'-model of creation, denoting the intervention of a more 'earthbound' ingenium. I argue that this model was used by certain classes of artists as an acknowledgement of a strong engagement with materials and of the labour of a round-the-clock imagination. Goldsmithing and printmaking are artistic professions whereby the artistic process was often considered as an act of 'soiling' oneself, both in the sense of the body and the phantasia. This thesis focuses on a period spanning c. 1530 to 1675, from Rabelais' works to the facetious printer Jacques Lagniet. It mines a corpus of little-studied textual and visual sources from the north of the Alps, examining a continuity between France and the German lands: geographical areas which both had an especially pronounced 'culture of excretion'. From a broader perspective, this research responds to a widespread scholarly call for more attention to the organic soul and the lower body, nuancing the alleged hegemony of the brain and the higher senses throughout history. It seeks to modify the perception of early modern artists and viewers as cerebral intellectuals, presenting them as individuals who also 'thought with their guts'.