Over the past two decades there has been an upsurge in interest in structural equation modelling (SEM). Applications abound in the social sciences and econometrics, but the use of this multivariate technique is not so common in public health research. This dissertation discusses the methodology, the criticisms and practical problems of SEM. We examine actual applications of SEM in public health research. Comparisons are made between multiple regression and SEM and between factor analysis and SEM. A complex model investigating the utilization of antenatal care services (ANC) by migrant women in Belgium is analysed using SEM. The dissertation concludes with a discussion of the results found and on the use of SEM in public health research. Structural equation modelling is recommended as a tool for public health researchers with a warning against using the technique too casually. / Mathematical Sciences / M. Sc. (Statistics)

The overall security posture of information systems (IS) depends on the behaviors of the IS users. Several studies have shown that users are the greatest vulnerability to IS security. The proliferation of smartphones is introducing an entirely new set of risks, threats, and vulnerabilities. Smartphone devices amplify this data exposure problem by enabling instantaneous transmission and storage of personally identifiable information (PII) by smartphone users, which is becoming a major security risk. Moreover, companies are also capitalizing on the availability and powerful computing capabilities of these smartphone devices and developing a bring-your-own-device (BYOD) program, which makes companies susceptible to divulgence of organizational proprietary information and sensitive customer information. In addition to users being the greatest risk to IS security, several studies have shown that many people do not implement even the most basic security countermeasures on their smartphones. The lack of security countermeasures implementation, risky user behavior, and the amount of sensitive information stored and transmitted on smartphones is becoming an ever-increasing problem. A literature review revealed a significant gap in literature pertaining to smartphone security. This study identified six socio-cognitive factors from the domain of traditional computer security which have shown to have an impact on user security behaviors and practices. The six factors this study identified and analyzed are mobile information security self-efficacy, institutional trust, party trust, and awareness of smartphone risks, threats, and vulnerabilities and their influence on smartphone security practices and behaviors. The analysis done in this research was confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) – structural equation modeling (SEM). The goal of this study was to cross-validate previously validated factors within the context of traditional computer security and assess their applicability in the context of smartphone security. Additionally, this study assessed the influential significance of these factors on the security behaviors and practices of smartphone users. This study used a Web-based survey and was distributed to approximately 539 users through Facebook® and LinkedIn® social media outlets which resulted in 275 responses for a 51% response rate. After pre-analysis data screening was completed, there were a total of 19 responses that had to be eliminated due to unengaged responses and outliers leaving 256 responses left to analyze. The results of the analysis found that vulnerability awareness, threat awareness, and risk awareness are interrelated to one another which all in turn had significance in predicting self-efficacy, security practices, and behaviors. This intricate relationship revealed in this study indicates that a user has to have an increased awareness in all three categories of awareness before they can fully understand how to protect themselves. Having an increased awareness in one category does not impact the overall security posture of the user and that risk, threat, and vulnerability awareness all work together. Another interesting find was that as risk awareness increased the less the smartphone users protected themselves. This finding warrants additional research to investigate why the user is more averse to risk, and willing to accept the risk, despite their increased awareness. Finally, institutional trust and party trust was found not to have any significance on any of the factors. These findings should give smartphone users and organizations insight into specific areas to focus on in minimizing inappropriate security behaviors and practices of smartphone users. More specifically, users and organizations need to focus on educating users on all three factors of threats, risks, and vulnerabilities in order for there to have any impact on increasing self-efficacy and reducing inappropriate security behaviors and practices.

The measurement of reliable and valid indicators of early child development is necessary for assessing phenomena and is useful in the monitoring of ongoing efforts to eradicate inequalities in the social determinants of health. There is an increasing awareness of the contextual, cultural, and developmental influences on constructs used in early child development (ECD) research. Using a measurement perspective, this dissertation examined the issue of measurement invariance and psychometric validity in early child development research. A construct violates the principle of invariance when two persons from different populations who are theoretically identical on the construct being measured have different scores on it. This dissertation consists of three journal-style manuscripts (published or under review) that were used as examples to address the importance of the issue of measurement invariance and psychometric validity in ECD research using data from two unique areas: autism and executive functioning. The three data sets were collected on pre-school children with parents and or teachers as informants and were chosen to represent different levels of data collection – clinical, community, and population. These data sets allowed for the examination of measurement invariance by type of informant, sex, and age of child. The results from the three studies illustrate the importance of assessing measurement invariance in ECD and whether or not the instruments examined can be used to assess sub-group differences with confidence. A lack of measurement invariance found for two of the studies, suggests that observed group differences in latent constructs could be attributed, in part, to measurement bias. More importantly, bias in the measurement of the constructs of severity of social impairment symptoms in autism, and executive functioning across groups could have an impact on services such as patient treatment. These biases could also influence public policy development, particularly when there may be an underlying need for a cross-group approach where belief systems may affect the meaning and structure of constructs. In summary, measurement invariance should be a prerequisite for making any meaningful comparisons across groups. A requirement of establishing measurement invariance should be included in the guidelines for comparative research studies as a necessary first step before an instrument is adopted for use.

我國自83學年度推動教育改革以來，至94學年度為止，學士班人數已由30萬2,093人增加為93萬8,648人、碩士班人數由3萬832人增加為14萬9,493人、博士班人數則由8,395人增加為2萬7,531人，可見近年來大專校院學生數可謂急遽地增加。而我們由94學年度大學考試分發入學錄取率高達89.08％，更顯示進入大學就讀已絕非難事。然而鑒於我國2005年的出生人口數已從2000年的30萬5,312人降至20萬5,854人，在此少子化的趨勢形成影響前，93學年度大專校院的缺額數卻已高達6萬471人，顯現出大專校院的招生呈現出明顯供過於求的現象。研究者於是對中央主管教育行政機關以「總量管制」方式核定大專校院招生名額的機制產生濃厚研究興趣。 　　本研究採用「文獻分析法」及「問卷調查法」等兩個研究方法進行研究，其中旨在探討此大專校院招生名額總量管制之政策沿革與現況，並以更多元、開放的角度探討大專校院招生名額總量管制應達到哪些預期效益且嘗試建構其因素模式，接著依據前述預期效益建構出適當的大專校院招生名額總量管制指標，最後則探討不同背景變項(如性別、年齡、最高學歷、身份、學校體系、學校性質等)的受試者對大專校院招生名額總量管制預期效益與指標看法之差異。 　　本研究以李克特六點式量表、網路問卷形式設計成「大專校院招生名額總量管制預期效益與其指標調查問卷」來作為研究工具，並以「兩階段取樣」的方式來廣泛蒐集大專校院教師、職員與學生等研究對象的同意程度看法。其中第一階段係分別藉由函請各校轉寄E-mail通知該校教職員及學生上網填答、至各校bbs發表文章進行問卷施測通知等兩種途徑，獲得回收樣本數8,473份，扣除無效問卷317份後，總計有效回收問卷為8,156份，並據以建置為樣本資料庫。第二階段則採分層隨機抽樣方式分別於大專校院教師、職員及學生等三層各抽出336個樣本，總計獲得1,008個樣本。 此1,008個樣本將分別以SPSS 13.0及LISERL8.72等兩套統計軟體進行資料分析，其中將採用次數分配與百分比、算術平均數與標準差、t檢定、獨立樣本單因子變異數分析、驗證性因素分析等統計方法進行分析，並經專家效度、聚合效度、區別效度及交叉驗證效度、Cronbach’s α係數、潛在變項的組合信度、個別觀察變項的信度等檢定過程中證實本研究具有良好的研究效度與信度。 　　本研究總計建構出13個大專校院招生名額總量管制預期效益，其同意程度平均數(M)介於4.48∼5.28之間，同意百分比(P)則介於81.5%∼96.4%之間；至於此預期效益之因素模式則也獲得相當良好的適配結果，並據以證實大專校院教師、職員與學生對於大專校院招生名額總量管制預期效益的同意程度看法，會受到「保障大專校院教學品質」、「符合學生性向與需求」「符合就業市場人力與專業需求」、「大專校院競爭力之維持與提昇」等4個潛在因素構面(或稱構念)的影響。接著，並依據前述預期效益建構出26個大專校院招生名額總量管制指標，其同意程度平均數(M)介於4.30∼4.94之間，同意百分比(P)則介於79.0%∼93.9%之間。 此外，本研究亦發現，在性別、年齡、最高學歷、身分、專兼職情形、學校體系與學校性質等7個不同背景變項的受試者對大專校院招生名額總量管制預期效益與指標之同意程度看法的差異中，除了不同「學校體系」變項的受試者對指標看法沒有顯著差異、但對預期效益看法有顯著差異外，其餘6個不同背景變項皆在預期效益與指標的看法上有顯著差異。 最後，本研究並依據研究成果，提出下列具體建議： 一、總量管制預期效益不宜只考量「維持教學品質」，應進一步關注學生 　　需求、就業市場需求、以及學校競爭力等方面的預期效益之達成情 　　形。 二、總量管制指標不宜只考量到生師比、師資結構與校舍面積等指標，應　　以多元觀點發展出更多指標，以充分掌握招生管理資訊。 三、總量管制不應侷限在「每年成長總量的管控」，而應納入「減少招生　　名額」的情境條件。 四、宜適度減少各校擴增招生名額的誘因。 五、宜研議總量管制業務整併之可行性。 六、總量管制資料的蒐集宜化被動為主動，以掌握客觀審查資訊。 / When Taiwan setting into education reforms from 1994 school years till 2005 school years, the students at classes of bachelor degree increase to 938,648 from 302,093, the students at classes of master's degree increase to 149,493 from 30,832, the students at classes of doctor's degree increase to 27,531 from 8,395. It is perceived that students of higher education increasing rapidly. Furthermore, the admission rates of universities' enrollment paths by entrance examination grades reaches 89.08％, it appears that entering into universities is not hard anymore. However, since population of births had reduced to 205,854 at the year of 2005 from 305,312 at the year of 2000, and before the impact of trends of few-children, the vacancies of enrollment of higher education had reached 60,471, we can find a obvious phenomenon that the supply of enrollment of higher education exceeds the demand. So I have a strong interest in the mechanism of how Ministry of Education ratifying the enrollment of higher education by the method of "Total Amount Control". 　　The study adopts two approaches, that is "literature review" and "questionnaire survey", and it explores the policy's developing progress and current situation of the enrollment's total amount control of higher education. Furthermore, it explores what expected effectiveness of the enrollment's total amount control of higher education should be reached with the diverse and liberal viewpoints, and tries to construct its factor model. Then according to the expected effectiveness, we establishes appropriate indicators of the enrollment's total amount control of higher education. Finally, we explore if subjects with different background variables, such as sex, age, degree, identity, full/part time, system of school, character of school, will have significant differences about opinions of expected effectiveness and indicators of the enrollment's total amount control of higher education. 　　The study designs the "questionnaire of expected effectiveness and indicators of the enrollment's total amount control of higher education" with Likert six point scale and network questionnaire, and broadly collects samples of teachers, officers, and students of higher education by the methods of "Two stage Sampling". At the first stage, I use two survey ways, that is e-mail informing and bbs informing, and I get 8,473 returned samples, and finally get 8,156 valid samples after reducing 317 invalid samples. At the second stage, I gains 1,008 samples from three layers of teachers, officers, and students of higher education with "stratified random sampling". 　　The 1,008 samples will be analysed by two software of SPSS 13.0 and LISERL8.72. The ways of analysis include frequency and percentage, average and standard deviation, t-test, one-way ANOVA, confirmatory factor analysis. Furthermore, after the examining of expert validity, convergent validity, discriminant validity, cross- validity, Cronbach's α, composite reliability, and individual observed variables' reliability, we have confirmed the study has good study validity and reliability. The study finally constructs 13 expected effectiveness of the enrollment's total amount control of higher education, and its average of agree extent between 4.48 to 5.28, its agree percentage between 81.5% to 96.4%. Furthermore, the factor model of that expected effectiveness has good fit results too, it confirms that the opinions on expected effectiveness of the enrollment's total amount control of higher education will be influenced by the latent factors of "Ensure the teaching quality of higher education", "Matching with students' aptitude and needs", "Matching with manpower and specialty's needs of job market", "keep and promote the competitive ability of higher education". Then according to the expected effectiveness, we establishes 26 indicators of the enrollment's total amount control of higher education, and its average of agree extent between 4.30 to 4.94, its agree percentage between 79.0% to 93.9%. 　　Furthermore, the study find among the opinions' difference of agree extent on expected effectiveness and indicators of the enrollment's total amount control of higher education from 7 different background variables, such as sex, age, degree, identity, full/part time, system of school, character of school, beside the "system of school" haven't significant difference on indicators but have on expected effectiveness, other 6 different background variables all have significant difference on expected effectiveness and indicators. 　　Finally, according to the results of this study, I propose some suggestions as follow: 1.The expected effectiveness of total amount control shouldn't be restricted within "maintain teaching quality", we should consider the expected effectiveness' implement of students' need, job market's need, and school's competitiveness further. 2.The indicators of total amount control shouldn't be 　restricted within the indicators of student-teacher rates, 　structure of teacher, superficial contents of school 　buildings only, we need more indicators with diversified 　viewpoints to get information for enrollment's managing. 3.The total amount control shouldn't be restricted by "the 　amount control of every years' growth", we need to add the 　conditions of "reducing enrollment". 4.We should try to appropriately reduce the "inducing factors" 　of universities increasing enrollment. 5.Ministry of Education should try to merge the affairs of 　total amount control from different departments. 6.We should collect the data of total amount control actively 　instead of passive, so that we can get objective information 　to examine.

Social Capital and Open Innovation are important for organisational growth, as both of them influence Innovation, Learning and Job Satisfaction. The literature indicates that informal network measured as social capital and formal network measured as open innovation influences positively to organizational innovation performance, learning and job satisfaction. Most of the studies in this area have been carried out using univariate approaches, and only few dimensions of both Social Capital and Open Innovation have been considered. Current literature outlines the positive influence of Social Capital and Open Innovation on Learning, Innovation and Job Satisfaction. In this study, an attempt has been made to develop a multi-dimensional framework for Social Capital and Open Innovation, in order to better understand the nuances of Learning, Innovation and Job Satisfaction in an R&D setting. Another important factor influencing the R&D outcomes is Absorptive Capacity; it is the capacity of the organisation to identify and use external knowledge. The direct and moderating role of Absorptive Capacity has been examined. Both theoretical and conceptual models have been proposed, and a measurement scale in form of a questionnaire has been developed. Data was collected from 35 organisations across India operating in the field of defence R&D. The sample included Government-run R&D organisations, Public Sector Units (PSUs) and private firms, and total of 331 engineers/scientists responded to the survey. Data was analysed using statistical methods such as Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), Common Method Variance (CMV), and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Reliability and validity of the proposed scales for the constructs have been verified using appropriate techniques, and further inferences have been drawn by using regression techniques and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to assess the proposed relationships. It has been found that both Social Capital and Open Innovation have positive influence on Learning, Innovation and Job Satisfaction. Further, it was found that Absorptive Capacity had a positive association with both Innovation and Learning. However, Absorptive Capacity did not moderate the relationship of Social Capital with both Innovation and Learning, but was found to moderate the relationship between Open Innovation and Innovation, for both outbound and inbound approaches of Open Innovation. Bonding Social Capital had a relatively stronger positive association with Learning, while Bridging Social Capital was found to have a stronger relationship with Innovation. In summary, networking factors Social Capital and Open Innovation have strong positive association with R&D outcomes measured as innovation performance, learning and job satisfaction.

The overall objective of this study was to determine the factorial invariance of a South African-developed Employee Engagement Instrument (EEI) across different race groups in financial institutions. A secondary objective of this study was to determine whether race groups differ significantly with regard to the six dimensions of the employee engagement instrument. A quantitative, cross-sectional and descriptive research design was followed in this study, using a non-probability, convenience sampling (N = 1175). The EEI was electronically administered to 285 000 businesspeople from various demographic backgrounds, which form part of a research database. The focus was respondents from financial institutions. Descriptive and inferential statistical analysis was employed to achieve the empirical objectives of this study. Findings from the statistical analysis indicated that White and Black employees differed significantly with regards to how they are engaged by their immediate managers; however, the practical significance was small. Furthermore, the employee engagement instrument was found to be reliable and valid and the instrument was invariant across the four different race groups. By understanding how employees from different backgrounds are engaged it enables organisations to customise their engagement programmes to meet the needs of the various types of employees within the organisation, instead of applying a “one size fits all” approach to engagement programmes. The findings of this study provided valuable insights into the importance of employee engagement in a South African context, especially for financial institutions. Finally, the study adds to the vast body of knowledge that exists with regard to employee engagement and race, both locally and internationally. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M. Com. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)

Over the past two decades there has been an upsurge in interest in structural equation modelling (SEM). Applications abound in the social sciences and econometrics, but the use of this multivariate technique is not so common in public health research. This dissertation discusses the methodology, the criticisms and practical problems of SEM. We examine actual applications of SEM in public health research. Comparisons are made between multiple regression and SEM and between factor analysis and SEM. A complex model investigating the utilization of antenatal care services (ANC) by migrant women in Belgium is analysed using SEM. The dissertation concludes with a discussion of the results found and on the use of SEM in public health research. Structural equation modelling is recommended as a tool for public health researchers with a warning against using the technique too casually. / Mathematical Sciences / M. Sc. (Statistics)

Entrepreneurial Orientation (EO) is a widely researched construct of corporate entrepreneurship. Despite long-standing research on EO, past studies on this construct have been unable to resolve issues related to its measurement. Innovation Intensity (II) is also a dynamic construct of corporate entrepreneurship but has received relatively less empirical attention. Previous research has reported an absence of an empirically validated quantitative scale of innovation, particularly innovation intensity. This research has addressed these gaps by proposing a refinement and validation of the Entrepreneurial Orientation scale and the development of an Innovation Intensity scale. The research proposes an Entrepreneurial Transformational Model (ETM) positing that EO impacts II. A predominantly quantitative research strategy supported by qualitative inputs, is employed to obtain empirical data from 404 corporate firms in Oman, drawing from a list of corporate firms registered with the Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry. A mix of questionnaire survey and semi-structured interviews was conducted with senior managers from firms representing various industries of the Omani corporate sector. Utilising exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modelling (SEM), a two-stage data analysis approach was adopted. Measurement and structural models were developed for EO and II measures, while a complete SEM model was developed to test the causal relationship between EO and II. The results indicate that EO is a second-order construct consisting of five first-order factors, namely ready to innovate, competitive aggressiveness, autonomy, risk taking and proactiveness, which are its reflective components. Similarly, II is a second-order construct consisting of two first-order factors, namely degree and frequency of incremental and radical innovation, which are its reflective components. The II scale developed through this study allows corporate firms to assess their innovation intensity on a two-dimensional four-celled grid with varying levels of degree and frequency of innovation. Finally, EO is found to influence II and the entire relationship is posited as Entrepreneurial Transformation Model. This study, by addressing the empirical irregularities, has brought clarity to the measurement of EO and II constructs and is an original contribution to the advancement of theoretical knowledge and improvement in professional practice.

(in English): This paper is devoted to indicator of subjective quality of working life (SQWLI) equivalence of measurement and testing of this instrument over time. The theoretical part introduces the concept of equivalence, from its inception, through the definition, types, methods used to test different kinds of equivalence and programs that can be used for this purpose. Furthermore the tested data files from 2009, 2011, 2013 to 2014 are presented. The analytical part contains a description of confirmatory factor analysis for multiple groups which is the most common method for testing equivalence of measurement. Presented are the results of several testing methods - analysis of reliability, exploratory factor analysis and the confirmatory factor analysis for multiple groups. According to the results it is shown how it is possible to approach comparisons over time and finally the development of SQWLI and it's individual changes in terms of the functionality of the whole tool is discussed. 2

許多研究證實企業落實企業社會責任（CSR），有助增進與利害關係人關係。然而，不同利害關係人對不同面向之CSR的態度因重視程度高低而有差異，若企業能以特定利害關係人所注重之CSR面向進行溝通，溝通效果將事半功倍。「天下企業公民獎」是國內CSR獎項的先行者，透過將CSR分為「公司治理」、「企業承諾」、「社會參與」與「環境保護」，邀請專家學者對參獎企業進行各構面的評比。此獎深耕台灣，許多企業視此獎為自身CSR的年度總體檢。 本研究以民眾角度，探討天下企業公民獎四大構面是否為衡量CSR的顯著指標，及各構面之衡量題項是否能真實反應該構面意涵。其次，探討四大構面在消費者心中的相對重要性，並進行跨產業比較：探討是否因產業不同，使民眾對四大構面的重要性排序發生改變。最後透過重要性－績效分析法，找出各產業之代表企業（玉山金控、華碩電腦與中華電信）在民眾心中仍可加強的CSR構面。本研究之有效網路問卷共344份（金融業115份、製造業117份、服務業112份），透過LISREL進行二階驗證式因素分析。研究結果歸納如下： 一、四大構面皆為衡量企業社會責任的顯著指標。 二、「環境保護」、「社會參與」、「公司治理」之題項皆為衡量構面的顯著指標。「企業承諾」構面下則有兩題項對該構面的解釋能力不足。 三、民眾對於企業社會責任之四大構面的重要性排序為「企業承諾」＞「公司治理」＞「環境保護」＞「社會參與」。 四、「企業承諾」在民眾心中屬於相對重要性高的構面。若企業透過企業承諾構面的CSR作為與民眾溝通，推測能夠有達到較佳的溝通效果。 五、對於三間代表企業而言，「企業承諾」皆為民眾較重視的構面，但玉山金控與華碩電腦在民眾心中的表現績效偏低，建議可列為優先改善重點。 六、企業的「社會參與」績效佳，但民眾認為重要性低，故可將資源重分配。 / Companies nowadays face an ever more difficult environment and more demanding stakeholders. This means corporate social responsibility has become a new area offering opportunity for reducing risks and developing new competitive advantages. Previous research has shown that corporate social responsibility helps companies better communicate with stakeholders and increase brand value as well as reputation. “CommonWealth Magazine Corporate Citizen Award” is the pioneer in domestic corporate social responsibility awards. Its corporate social responsibility (CSR) framework takes four dimensions into account, including Corporate Governance, Corporate Commitment, Community Involvement, and Environmental Protection. Annually, experts and scholars are invited to grade on these four dimensions, and awards are given out to the top 100 corporate citizens. The award is in its 11th consecutive year. With its long tradition and reputation, many companies regard this award as the annual examination for their corporate social responsibility practices. From the customers’ perspective, this study examines whether the four dimensions given by CommonWealth Magazine Corporate Citizen Award can be significant indicators for corporate social responsibility, and whether the measuring questions truly reflect each dimension. Next, it moves on to examine the relative importance for consumers of the four dimensions, including cross-industry comparison. By including the financial industry, the manufacturing industry and the service industry, it examines whether people would rank the four dimensions in a different order according to different industries. Finally, by applying Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA), it analyses the dimensions for three representative corporations in each industry (E. Sun Financial Holdings Company, ASUSTEK Computer Inc, and Chunghwa Telecom Co., Ltd.) Based on these findings, suggestions for improvement are made. With 344 valid online questionnaires (115 in the financial industry, 117 in the manufacturing industry, 112 in the service industy) and using second-order CFA in LISREL, the research findings are summarized as below: 1. All four dimensions are significant indicators for measuring corporate social responsibility. 2. The measuring questions for “Environmental Protection”, “Social Involvement” and “Corporate Governance” dimensions are all significant indicators for their respective dimensions. However, two measuring questions in “Corporate Commitment” do not provide sufficient explanation of this dimension. 3. People rank in the order of importance the four dimensions of corporate social responsibility as follows: Corporate Commitment, Corporate Governance, Environmental Protection, and Community Involvement. 4. In the cross-industry comparison, “Corporate Commitment” ranks the most or second most important dimension for consumers. Companies are advised to communicate with consumers through activities in this dimension. 5. Consumers place great value on “Corporate Commitment”, while E. Sun Financial Holdings Company and ASUSTEK Computer Inc perform poorly in this dimension. Suggestions are given as to better prioritize the practice of this dimension. 6. “Community Involvement” shows high performance, while consumers actually do not place that much importance on it. Thus, it is recommended that resources should be reorganized.