Central US bodies under the constitutions between 1781 and 1787 and their competences Abstract The subject of this thesis is the central bodies of the United States of America and their competences. In the context of this work the central bodies are the President of the United States as the head of the executive branch, bicameral Congress, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate, as the major body of the legislative branch and the Supreme Court as the major body of the judicial branch. The aim of this work was to analyze how these bodies function and their position within the constitutional system of the United States, both horizontally and vertically. The first part of the thesis deals with the circumstances of the establishment of the United States of America, the adoption of the Declaration of Independence and the end of the American War of Independence. The second part deals with the Articles of Confederation, the first US Constitution, and the process of their creation, the bodies that were created on their basis and their competences. The third part deals with the reasons for the creation and process of adoption of the US Constitution, the problems that accompanied its creation, the legal principles on the basis of which it was created and the content of the Bill of Rights. The...

The relationship between the state and religious communities in the USA Abstract The purpose of this thesis is to introduce the relevant aspects of the relationship between the state and religious communities in the United States of America. The focus of the thesis lies in the introduction of the development of interpretation of both religious clauses of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution by the Supreme Court, especially in the 20th century. This thesis aims to show, how both religious clauses, even though they were created to serve the same purpose, are in some cases interpreted in a contradicting way. The thesis also elaborates on religious freedom in the sensitive environment of armed forces, as the soldiers depend totally on services provided to them by the government. In the final part, the thesis introduces certain exceptions from the generally applicable legal provisions for the churches and religious legal entities, as well as recent development from the perspective of admitting religious freedom to business corporations. Keywords: freedom of religion, Constitution of the United States, First Amendment, churches, Supreme Court, USA

[pt] A Revolução Americana registrou uma intensa participação política popular nos Estados da Confederação. Este período marcou a preferência pela doutrina da separação absoluta de Poderes, uma vez que o sistema de governo balanceado inglês permitiu que o clientelismo real corrompesse a independência do Parlamento, órgão supostamente responsável pela defesa das liberdades civis nas colônias. Porém, o engajamento do povo foi condenado pela elite norteamericana, que liderou um movimento de centralização do poder capaz de controlar o excesso de democracia local, identificado com a supremacia que as assembléias possuíam no âmbito estadual. Neste contexto surge a Constituição de 1787, que funda suas bases na teoria dos freios e contrapesos como um método de fiscalização recíproca dos Poderes, mas, com especial destaque, para o controle do Legislativo. O evento constitucional enfraqueceu a virtude dos cidadãos, que se restringiu à atividade de expansão rumo à fronteira e criou um mecanismo de governo autônomo, que concentrou a política na ação de uma elite dirigente e na relação entre os diferentes órgãos intra-estatais. O estudo da concepção de separação de Poderes em Jefferson, Madison e Hamilton ajuda a esclarecer o modo com que o projeto constitucional de 1787 rompeu com a ideologia a essência revolucionária. / [en] The American Revolution presented a high level of popular politics participation under the Confederation years. This moment marked the option for the absolute doctrine of the separation of powers as a response against the failure of the balanced constitution theory and the incapacity of the British Parliament to protect the colonies civil liberties. However, the fear of popular engagement made the American elites lead a centralization of power that could be able to control the popular local democracy. The Constitution of the United States and its checks and balances system were born as a result of that conservative process. The constitutional structure protected the government of the people direct action and influence, creating a separated dimension to the politics forces game. The study of the concepts of this era and the meanings they were used, particularly, the Jefferson s, Madison s and Hamilton s conception concerning of the separation of powers doctrine helps to understand how the Constitution ruptured the spirit of the American Revolution, based on the active citizenship.

The study collected information about training practices in local churches of the United Brethren in Christ. A mailed questionnaire was used to collect data from 230 churches nationwide. The instrument contained 22 questions, divided into three sections: (a) teacher involvement in religious education, (b) teacher training, and (c) demographic information. The return rate was 65.7% (151 surveys). Frequency counts and percentages were obtained. Data were summarized in table and narrative form. Cross-tabulations were completed between selected demographic variables and the provision for teacher training.Selected findings included: (a) among 15 possible religious education activities, at least two-thirds of the churches reported using teachers in five of them; (b) over half of the churches (51%) provided some form of training; (c) among those providing some form of training the scope was limited; (d) difficulty in scheduling and lack of fiscal resources were identified as the greatest obstacles to training; (e) training was more common in churches with larger attendance figures for worship and Sunday school.The following conclusions were formulated: (a) the extent to which teachers were used in religious education activities was affected by the scope of programs offered; (b) in the absence of a mandate for training, scheduling and scarce resources were negative factors; (c) even in churches conducting training, the activity was not a high priority; (d) reliance on consultants and conferences reflected the fact that churches did not conduct theirfor pastors to require training; and, (f) training occurred more often in larger churches where adequate resources and formal approaches to programming were common.Six recommendations were presented: (a) the denomination should develop and disseminate a position on teacher training; (b) pastors should be exposed to educational programs stressing the importance of training teachers; (c) the denomination should formulate and make available more programs and materials to support training; (d) the issue of effectiveness of training programs should be examined; (e) research on the selection, supervision, retention, and evaluation of teachers should be conducted.own training; (e) using volunteers made it more difficult / Department of Educational Leadership

The subject of this thesis is the presidential system as one of the distinguished alternatives of existing political systems in the present democratic society. This thesis is divided into three parts. The primary aim of the first part is to produce a brief overview of individual political systems and to outline their mutual differences through the description of their characteristics. The second part describes a specific political system in this world - namely the United States of America which became the source of inspiration for all subsequently established systems of this type. This part focusing on the United States is then divided into three separate chapters where each of them provides a view of particular branches of the government which form a constitutional system of the state together. These chapters offer not only the characteristics of these particular government branches and their central government bodies, but they also explain their mutual relationship and the control mechanism and particularly their relation to the President who is the key character of the entire presidential system, also his office and his powers. The main source of information, from which this part of the thesis proceeds, is the United States Constitution itself which is, as the supreme law of the state, the...

La création du Supremo Tribunal Federal est recherché par de facteurs qui ont influencé la chute de la monarchie, l'oeuvre du Gouvernement Provisoire, les discussions à l'Assemblée constituante et les normes de la nouvelle Constitution. L'environnement politique et juridique qui commence à se développer en 1870 explique la force des groupes, des idées politiques et comment les États-Unis sont devenus le modèle de référence pour le Brésilien. Il est le rôle des positivistes, des militaires, des propriétaires fonciers, des intellectuels urbains et la naissante opinion publique des villes qui composent l'environnement pour le remplacement de l'ancien système politique. Ces éléments sont présentés afin de vérifier comment était la division de la pensée politique au Brésil et les effets de cette division dans les normes constitutionnelles républicaines. Même qui bien documenté l'histoire de la cour suprême après leur activité, ces moments de création aident a donner un aperçu des origines de la cour et les raisons de sa conception institutionnelle. La compréhension de ces moments permettent d'expliquer les conflits qui pourraient surgir lorsqu'un tribunal avec de telles compétences ont agi pendant décennies dans un contexte peu enclins à accepter les interventions et les limites aux décisions politiques. / A criação do Supremo Tribunal Federal é pesquisada por meio dos fatores que influíram na queda da coroa, implantação do Governo Provisório, discussões na Assembleia Constituinte e as normas da nova Constituição. O ambiente político e jurídico que começa a se desenvolver em 1870 explica a força dos grupos e ideias políticas e como os Estados Unidos da América passaram a ser o modelo de referência para os brasileiros. É o papel dos positivistas, militares, proprietários rurais, intelectuais urbanos e a nascente opinião pública das cidades que formam o ambiente para a substituição do antigo sistema político. Esses elementos são apresentados para verificar como se dividiam as correntes de pensamento político no Brasil e os efeitos dessa divisão nas normas constitucionais republicanas. Apesar de estar bem documentada a trajetória do Supremo Tribunal Federal após a sua atividade, esses momentos de criação ajudam a dar uma perspectiva das origens da corte e os motivos de seu desenho institucional. Compreender esses momentos ajuda a explicar os conflitos que seriam gerados quando uma corte com tais competências fosse atuar por décadas em um contexto pouco propenso a aceitar intervenções e limitações de decisões políticas. / The creation of the Supremo Tribunal Federal is researched considering the factors that influenced the fall of the monarchy, beginning of the Interim Government, discussions in the Constituent Assembly and the norms of the new Constitution. The political and legal environment that begins to develop in 1870 explains the role of groups, political ideas and how the United States became the reference model for the Brazilian. It is the role of the positivists, military, landowners, urban intellectuals and the rising public opinion in the cities that make up the environment for the replacement of the old political system. These elements are presented to verify how divided the currents of political thought were in Brazil and the effects of this division in the Republican constitutional norms. Although the history of the supreme court after its activity is well documented, these moments of creation help to give a fuller perspective of the court origins and the reasons for its institutional design. Understanding these moments helps to explain the conflicts that would arise when a court with such ample legal attributions were operating for decades in a context disinclined to accept interventions and limitations of policy decisions. / La creación de lo Supremo Tribunal Federal es investigada por medio de los factores que influyeron en la caída de la corona, la implementación del Gobierno Provisional, los debates en la Asamblea Constituyente y las reglas de la nueva Constitución. El entorno político y legal que comienza a desarrollarse en 1870 explica la fuerza de los grupos, las ideas políticas y cómo el Estados Unidos se convirtió en el modelo de referencia para los brasileños. Es el papel de los positivistas, militares, propietarios de tierras, intelectuales urbanos y la naciente opinión pública en las ciudades que conforman el entorno para la sustitución del antiguo sistema político. Estos elementos se presentan para se verificar cómo eran divididas las corrientes del pensamiento político en Brasil y los efectos de esta división en las normas constitucionales republicanas. Aunque bien documentada la historia de lo Supremo Tribunal Federal después de su actividad, estos momentos de la creación ayudan a dar una visión de los orígenes de la corte y las razones de su diseño institucional. La comprensión de estos momentos ayuda a explicar los conflictos que surgen cuando un tribunal con tales habilidades estuviera actuando por décadas en un contexto poco dispuesto a aceptar las intervenciones y las limitaciones en las decisiones políticas.

La création du Supremo Tribunal Federal est recherché par de facteurs qui ont influencé la chute de la monarchie, l'oeuvre du Gouvernement Provisoire, les discussions à l'Assemblée constituante et les normes de la nouvelle Constitution. L'environnement politique et juridique qui commence à se développer en 1870 explique la force des groupes, des idées politiques et comment les États-Unis sont devenus le modèle de référence pour le Brésilien. Il est le rôle des positivistes, des militaires, des propriétaires fonciers, des intellectuels urbains et la naissante opinion publique des villes qui composent l'environnement pour le remplacement de l'ancien système politique. Ces éléments sont présentés afin de vérifier comment était la division de la pensée politique au Brésil et les effets de cette division dans les normes constitutionnelles républicaines. Même qui bien documenté l'histoire de la cour suprême après leur activité, ces moments de création aident a donner un aperçu des origines de la cour et les raisons de sa conception institutionnelle. La compréhension de ces moments permettent d'expliquer les conflits qui pourraient surgir lorsqu'un tribunal avec de telles compétences ont agi pendant décennies dans un contexte peu enclins à accepter les interventions et les limites aux décisions politiques. / A criação do Supremo Tribunal Federal é pesquisada por meio dos fatores que influíram na queda da coroa, implantação do Governo Provisório, discussões na Assembleia Constituinte e as normas da nova Constituição. O ambiente político e jurídico que começa a se desenvolver em 1870 explica a força dos grupos e ideias políticas e como os Estados Unidos da América passaram a ser o modelo de referência para os brasileiros. É o papel dos positivistas, militares, proprietários rurais, intelectuais urbanos e a nascente opinião pública das cidades que formam o ambiente para a substituição do antigo sistema político. Esses elementos são apresentados para verificar como se dividiam as correntes de pensamento político no Brasil e os efeitos dessa divisão nas normas constitucionais republicanas. Apesar de estar bem documentada a trajetória do Supremo Tribunal Federal após a sua atividade, esses momentos de criação ajudam a dar uma perspectiva das origens da corte e os motivos de seu desenho institucional. Compreender esses momentos ajuda a explicar os conflitos que seriam gerados quando uma corte com tais competências fosse atuar por décadas em um contexto pouco propenso a aceitar intervenções e limitações de decisões políticas. / The creation of the Supremo Tribunal Federal is researched considering the factors that influenced the fall of the monarchy, beginning of the Interim Government, discussions in the Constituent Assembly and the norms of the new Constitution. The political and legal environment that begins to develop in 1870 explains the role of groups, political ideas and how the United States became the reference model for the Brazilian. It is the role of the positivists, military, landowners, urban intellectuals and the rising public opinion in the cities that make up the environment for the replacement of the old political system. These elements are presented to verify how divided the currents of political thought were in Brazil and the effects of this division in the Republican constitutional norms. Although the history of the supreme court after its activity is well documented, these moments of creation help to give a fuller perspective of the court origins and the reasons for its institutional design. Understanding these moments helps to explain the conflicts that would arise when a court with such ample legal attributions were operating for decades in a context disinclined to accept interventions and limitations of policy decisions. / La creación de lo Supremo Tribunal Federal es investigada por medio de los factores que influyeron en la caída de la corona, la implementación del Gobierno Provisional, los debates en la Asamblea Constituyente y las reglas de la nueva Constitución. El entorno político y legal que comienza a desarrollarse en 1870 explica la fuerza de los grupos, las ideas políticas y cómo el Estados Unidos se convirtió en el modelo de referencia para los brasileños. Es el papel de los positivistas, militares, propietarios de tierras, intelectuales urbanos y la naciente opinión pública en las ciudades que conforman el entorno para la sustitución del antiguo sistema político. Estos elementos se presentan para se verificar cómo eran divididas las corrientes del pensamiento político en Brasil y los efectos de esta división en las normas constitucionales republicanas. Aunque bien documentada la historia de lo Supremo Tribunal Federal después de su actividad, estos momentos de la creación ayudan a dar una visión de los orígenes de la corte y las razones de su diseño institucional. La comprensión de estos momentos ayuda a explicar los conflictos que surgen cuando un tribunal con tales habilidades estuviera actuando por décadas en un contexto poco dispuesto a aceptar las intervenciones y las limitaciones en las decisiones políticas.

La création du Supremo Tribunal Federal est recherché par de facteurs qui ont influencé la chute de la monarchie, l'oeuvre du Gouvernement Provisoire, les discussions à l'Assemblée constituante et les normes de la nouvelle Constitution. L'environnement politique et juridique qui commence à se développer en 1870 explique la force des groupes, des idées politiques et comment les États-Unis sont devenus le modèle de référence pour le Brésilien. Il est le rôle des positivistes, des militaires, des propriétaires fonciers, des intellectuels urbains et la naissante opinion publique des villes qui composent l'environnement pour le remplacement de l'ancien système politique. Ces éléments sont présentés afin de vérifier comment était la division de la pensée politique au Brésil et les effets de cette division dans les normes constitutionnelles républicaines. Même qui bien documenté l'histoire de la cour suprême après leur activité, ces moments de création aident a donner un aperçu des origines de la cour et les raisons de sa conception institutionnelle. La compréhension de ces moments permettent d'expliquer les conflits qui pourraient surgir lorsqu'un tribunal avec de telles compétences ont agi pendant décennies dans un contexte peu enclins à accepter les interventions et les limites aux décisions politiques. / A criação do Supremo Tribunal Federal é pesquisada por meio dos fatores que influíram na queda da coroa, implantação do Governo Provisório, discussões na Assembleia Constituinte e as normas da nova Constituição. O ambiente político e jurídico que começa a se desenvolver em 1870 explica a força dos grupos e ideias políticas e como os Estados Unidos da América passaram a ser o modelo de referência para os brasileiros. É o papel dos positivistas, militares, proprietários rurais, intelectuais urbanos e a nascente opinião pública das cidades que formam o ambiente para a substituição do antigo sistema político. Esses elementos são apresentados para verificar como se dividiam as correntes de pensamento político no Brasil e os efeitos dessa divisão nas normas constitucionais republicanas. Apesar de estar bem documentada a trajetória do Supremo Tribunal Federal após a sua atividade, esses momentos de criação ajudam a dar uma perspectiva das origens da corte e os motivos de seu desenho institucional. Compreender esses momentos ajuda a explicar os conflitos que seriam gerados quando uma corte com tais competências fosse atuar por décadas em um contexto pouco propenso a aceitar intervenções e limitações de decisões políticas. / The creation of the Supremo Tribunal Federal is researched considering the factors that influenced the fall of the monarchy, beginning of the Interim Government, discussions in the Constituent Assembly and the norms of the new Constitution. The political and legal environment that begins to develop in 1870 explains the role of groups, political ideas and how the United States became the reference model for the Brazilian. It is the role of the positivists, military, landowners, urban intellectuals and the rising public opinion in the cities that make up the environment for the replacement of the old political system. These elements are presented to verify how divided the currents of political thought were in Brazil and the effects of this division in the Republican constitutional norms. Although the history of the supreme court after its activity is well documented, these moments of creation help to give a fuller perspective of the court origins and the reasons for its institutional design. Understanding these moments helps to explain the conflicts that would arise when a court with such ample legal attributions were operating for decades in a context disinclined to accept interventions and limitations of policy decisions. / La creación de lo Supremo Tribunal Federal es investigada por medio de los factores que influyeron en la caída de la corona, la implementación del Gobierno Provisional, los debates en la Asamblea Constituyente y las reglas de la nueva Constitución. El entorno político y legal que comienza a desarrollarse en 1870 explica la fuerza de los grupos, las ideas políticas y cómo el Estados Unidos se convirtió en el modelo de referencia para los brasileños. Es el papel de los positivistas, militares, propietarios de tierras, intelectuales urbanos y la naciente opinión pública en las ciudades que conforman el entorno para la sustitución del antiguo sistema político. Estos elementos se presentan para se verificar cómo eran divididas las corrientes del pensamiento político en Brasil y los efectos de esta división en las normas constitucionales republicanas. Aunque bien documentada la historia de lo Supremo Tribunal Federal después de su actividad, estos momentos de la creación ayudan a dar una visión de los orígenes de la corte y las razones de su diseño institucional. La comprensión de estos momentos ayuda a explicar los conflictos que surgen cuando un tribunal con tales habilidades estuviera actuando por décadas en un contexto poco dispuesto a aceptar las intervenciones y las limitaciones en las decisiones políticas.