This dissertation contributes to the philosophy of empathy and biomedical ethics by drawing on phenomenological approaches to empathy, intersubjectivity, and affectivity in order to contest the primacy of the intersubjective aspect of empathy at the cost of its affective aspect. Both aspects need to be explained in order for empathy to be accurately understood in philosophical works, as well as practically useful for patient care in biomedical ethics. In the first chapter, I examine the current state of clinical empathy in medicine including professional opinions about empathy, the dominant definition being employed, and the problems that arise from this definition. By trying to define empathy in a way that is useful to the current presuppositions in medicine, clinical empathy aligns with simulation theory, which has three problems: the discrepancy between the way empathy is defined and the way it is explained, the lack of diversity that this theory of empathy allows in our understanding of others, and the lack of affective understanding and affective engagement involved in the patient-physician interaction. These three problems are used to derive three questions that are important for any theory of empathy: (1) What is the phenomenon being explained? (2) What is the intersubjective context of empathy? (3) What is the affective dimension of empathy? The best theory of clinical empathy can be formulated by answering these three questions as they relate to phenomenological theories, which are more attuned to overcoming presuppositions. Chapters two and three each examine a different phenomenological approach to empathy from opposite extremes in their theories of intersubjectivity. Husserl and Stein begin from an isolated, transcendental subject that needs empathy to bridge the gap between itself and others, while Scheler begins from a primary intersubjectivity in which self and other are undifferentiated, making empathy a largely unnecessary skill. Despite their strongly opposed positions, and the acknowledgement that their theories of intersubjectivity necessitate their theories of empathy, I argue that both fail to understand the affective dimension of empathy. Husserl and Stein leave no room in empathy for it to be an affect, while Scheler prioritizes affects that reunite subjects, but leaves empathy itself as a non-affective skill. Chapter four explains Gallagher’s interaction theory as a more moderate approach to the relation between empathy and intersubjectivity. He draws on the insights of the other two theories, but conceives of empathy as a multi-leveled phenomenon that allows for an understanding of others. While this theory does aid in addressing the intersubjective context of empathy in a way that best solves the first two problems with clinical empathy, interaction theory still fails to fully address the affectivity of empathy, maintaining empathy as a largely cognitive ability. Gallagher does acknowledge the affective core of empathy, but he does not explain the way in which it is affective. In response to this problem, I explain Anya Daly’s application of Merleau-Ponty’s theory of reversibility to affectivity as a possible solution to the problematic gap in Gallagher’s theory. Chapter five focuses on theories of clinical empathy in order to address the neglected affective aspects of empathy, and respond to the problem of detached concern. The problems caused by detached concern are explained, as well as why the theories discussed in the middle chapters are still unable to solve them. This is done in two parts. In the first part, I explain the basis of this issue in the cognitive/feeling divide, as explained in the philosophy of emotion. Then, I give a brief overview of the phenomenology of affectivity to be used as a guide to the affectivity of empathy. In the second part, I examine three theories of clinical empathy that attempt to solve the problem of detached concern, noting their strengths and weaknesses based on their similarities to phenomenological approaches to empathy and affectivity.

The thesis argues that two ways in which we can consider empathy’s role in ethics are fundamentally flawed because they fail to take into account the myriad ways in which empathy can be affected and influenced by our motivations. I apply what I call ‘the motivation objection’ to these two views. This has three aspects: (1) reliability: because empathy can be affected and influenced by our motivations, empathizing does not always lead to the right results; (2) function: because it can be affected and influenced by our motivations, empathy is not sufficient for various functions; (3) circularity: because it can be affected and influenced by our motivations, empathy cannot be used to define or explain certain aspects of morality in a non-circular way. The two ways of considering empathy’s role in ethics are what I call constitutive views, according to which empathy in some way constitutes, or is the foundation for, morality, and instrumental views, according to which empathy is of instrumental value in morality. I apply the motivation objection to three constitutive views, two historical and one contemporary, each of which is a sentimentalist theory of morality with empathy (or sympathy, in the case of the historical theories) at its heart. These are the sentimentalist moral theories of David Hume, Adam Smith and Michael Slote. I then apply the motivation objection to instrumental views of empathy’s role in ethics, before defending one particular instrumental view, according to which empathy can play a positive role in morality when integrated with virtue, and the virtue of compassion in particular.

The news has become a central part of daily culture in the United States and provides up to date information regarding a vast array of topics from weather to war. A specific aspect of the news, emergency 911 tapes, and their influence on viewers' physiological and psychological health was investigated. Research regarding the relationship between physiological arousal and exposure to brief traumatic stimuli, as well as research addressing the development of pathological psychiatric symptoms are discussed in the literature review. This study examined the relationship between exposure to 911 emergency tapes, physiological arousal, and symptoms of psychopathology while considering the influence of trait personality characteristics and state mood. Results identified significant differences in physiological response to the 911 emergency condition compared to news reports. No significant differences were identified between mood state and arousal except in the instance of respiration rate and negative mood; those with higher scores on negative mood displayed higher levels of respiration. Personality factors and empathy were examined for their predictive value on level of arousal, and yielded insignificant results. Finally, baseline level of PTSD was not significantly correlated with arousal in the 911 condition, except in terms of respiration rate. Future research is required to better understand the arousal as a result of exposure to such media, and the associated psychological and physiological health implications.

The roles of shame and guilt, and their relationships to empathy, have not been modelled adequately as key factors in moral decision-making in the study of violence. This research will test the different roles of empathy, shame, and guilt in violence decision-making using a Situational Action Theory perspective. Qualitative in-depth interviews were carried out with a violent offender subsample taken from the longitudinal Peterborough Adolescent and Young Adult Development Study (PADS+) in order to explore the role of moral emotion in specific real-life violent events. In addition, quantitative questionnaire indices enable comparison of the violent offender subsample with the remaining PADS+ study sample. Persistent offenders report significantly lower levels of empathy, shame and guilt on the quantitative indices, and weak empathy, shame, and guilt in their detailed recollections of specific acts of violence, e.g., “there’s not much guilt involved in the whole situation to be honest” (Sam, interview 39). The primary conclusion is that individuals with weak empathy, shame, and guilt are more likely to commit acts of violence. These study findings give insight into the real world, situational application of empathy, shame, and guilt, and provide strong support for the role of weak morality in violence decision-making.

Previous research has looked at how two dominant approaches to pursuing the good life – eudaimonia (pursuit of growth, excellence, authenticity) and hedonia (pursuit of pleasure, comfort) relate to benefits for the self. This thesis looked beyond personal well-being and investigated how eudaimonic and hedonic orientations relate to benefits beyond the self and broader scope of concern. Manuscript 1 assessed the link between eudaimonic and hedonic orientations and self-reported and observational prosocial behaviour, self-focused and other focused values, as well as time perspectives and abstract thinking. Manuscript 2 explored the association between eudaimonic and hedonic orientations and hindering social behaviours, and helping under various circumstances. Next, Manuscript 3 examined reasons for engaging in prosocial behaviours, including self-focused and other-focused motives. Lastly, Manuscript 4 went beyond self-report measures by studying the distinction between eudaimonic and hedonic orientations on reactions to pictures depicting human/animal/nature happiness/health and suffering/degradation based on self-report affect and empathy, facial expressions, and psychophysiological measures (skin conductance and heart rate). Manuscript 1 showed that eudaimonic orientation related to a broader focus, including scope of concern (i.e., a wider variety of prosocial behaviours, prosocial values), a balanced time perspective (present and future focus) and abstract mindset (i.e., high-level construal), while hedonic orientation tended to be more narrowly focused on the self and present moment. Manuscript 2 revealed that eudaimonic orientation related positively to helping under abstract and costly situations, and negatively with hindering social behaviours; hedonic orientation was related to negative impacts beyond the self. Manuscript 3 showed that eudaimonic orientation was a balance of helping to benefit both the self and others, while hedonic orientation was primarily related to helping for personal benefits. Manuscript 4 showed that eudaimonic orientation related to greater self-report joy and suffering beyond the self (relative to hedonia), while findings for facial expressions and psychophysiological responses were inconclusive. This research provides a unique contribution to the well-being literature by investigating the impacts that eudaimonic and hedonic orientations have on society using a comprehensive array of self-report questionnaires and a novel picture paradigm. Limitations of the present research include that most studies were based on self-report which can produce social desirability bias, and that the studies were correlational which limits casual inferences about the findings. Future research would benefit from experimental studies assessing the link between eudaimonia and hedonia and broad scope of concern.

Much has been written on the position of the translator; the concept of ‘position’ being understood variously in terms of spatial, ideological, sociological, philosophical, or narratological orientation. The present research project contributes to this body of work through the empirical investigation of translator position as an epistemological function, examining patterns of evidential stance-taking in original vs. translated autobiographies. A defining characteristic of autobiographical writings is a NARRATOR=EXPERIENCER relationship: the narrator has privileged access to the memory from which the narrative is sourced. However, when an autobiography is translated, the connection between the narrator and the source of the narrative – the memory of the experiencer – is interrupted. The translation of an autobiography, then, presents an epistemological paradox: the translator’s first person discursive position is at odds with the evidential basis from which he or she narrates. This research aims to investigate the extent to which the translator’s occupation of the position of an autobiographical ‘I’ is purely nominal or extends to the experiential, asking whether the textual production of a translation reveals distance between the narrator and the autobiographical experiences being narrated – a NARRATOR≠EXPERIENCER relationship – or reveals empathetic identification between the narrator and the author, projecting a NARRATOR=EXPERIENCER relationship. Based on an assumed contrast between the phenomenological and narrative character of memories acquired by first-hand experience vs. memories based on other sources, a framework is developed for the analysis of evidential stance-taking in the narration of autobiographical memories. Focusing on the narration of acts of recollection and descriptions of how recalled experiences ‘seemed’ to the experiencer, patterns of complement choice (e.g. remember –ing vs. remember that) are differentiated on the basis of their construal of memories as being either ‘experiential’ or ‘non-experiential’ in character. Applying the framework to a purpose-built, bi-directional comparable corpus of translated vs. non-translated autobiographies in English and Japanese, the study reveals a tendency towards a less frequent construal of memories from an ‘experiential’ stance, and more frequent construal of memories from an ‘non-experiential’ stance in translated texts in both English and Japanese. However, variation in stance-taking exhibited between the individual texts comprising respective sub-corpora is also in evidence. The findings are interpreted as a manifestation of the NARRATOR≠EXPERIENCER relationship characteristic of translated texts in general, but also as a possible indicator of the influence of variable degrees of translator-author identification on individual translators’ negotiation of position.

The purpose of this study was to explore the specific client issue of unfinished business by comparing the differential effectiveness of empathy plus the Gestalt empty-chair technique and empathic reflection. The population consisted of 28 subjects drawn from students enrolled in the first year of a Master's Degree program in Counselling Psychology at a major university. The subjects received two counselling sessions in either the empathy plus Gestalt condition or the Empathic reflection condition. Two relationship instruments, the Empathy Scale of the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory and the Task Dimension of the Working Alliance Inventory, were administered to assess the subject's perception of their therapist's behaviour and to screen for subjects who were not engaged in the process. Two outcome measures, the Target Complaint Measure and the Affective Reactions Questionnaire, were used to assess the amount of resolution subjects felt in their presenting complaint and the amount of change in their feelings toward the significant other. Two session measures, the Session Evaluation Questionnaire and the Target Complaint Discomfort Box Scale, were used to assess the current amount of discomfort regarding the presenting complaint and to evaluate the subject's perception of the sessions. The study showed that empathy plus the Gestalt empty-chair dialogue produced significantly more tolerance in the subjects' feelings toward a significant other person as measured by the Affective Reactions Questionnaire on an issue of unfinished business than those produced by empathic reflection. The results further suggest that a greater improvement in initial target complaint as measured by the Target Complaint Measure was felt for the empathy plus Gestalt condition than for the empathic reflection condition. The review of the literature suggests that the issue of unfinished business is an important one and the tentative results from this study suggest the need for further investigation to determine if the preliminary results are upheld in a clinical setting. The tentative results suggest that the Gestalt empty-chair dialogue in the context of an empathic relationship may make a contribution to the treatment of the issue of unfinished business. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

This study was undertaken in the belief that students of psychology possess a significantly greater degree of empathic ability than do students of other college majors. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there is any significant difference in empathic ability between psychology students and business students as a group.

This is a qualitative study based on interviews and the essay is composed by Siham El Hajoui and Nahrin Issa, students of Södertörns Högskola. The title of the study starts with a quote, taken from one of the respondents that reflects the expectations that people have of psychologist today. The purpose of this study is to investigate on how psychologist’s gets affected by their profession, how they draw a line between work and the remaining life and if they empathize with their clients. The study does also discuss the expectations that exists on psychologists, by their clients or in general. The study is based on six interviews with psychologists, who have been working at least 3 years as legitimized psychologists. The result of the study shows that the respondents experience that the psychologist occupation is difficult, and that one is required to have work experiences to be able to handle it in a good way. It was shown that it exists expectations on the respondents that affects them in a way that makes them use different strategies to be able to draw a line between work and the private life. The result was analyzed with the help of previous research about how to draw the line between work and remaining the life, doctors’ sympathy with patients, job burnout and with the help of theories about roles and empathy. / Detta är en kvalitativ studie i sociologi, baserad på intervjuer och skriven av Siham El Hajoui och Nahrin Issa. Studiens titel börjar med ett citat taget ur ett av de erhållna intervjusvaren, som speglar de förväntningar som människor kan ha på psykologer idag. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur psykologer påverkas av sitt arbete, hur de drar gränsen mellan arbete och övrigt liv samt om de känner empati för sina klienter. Det sker även en diskussion kring människors förväntningar på psykologer. Studien avgränsas genom ett fokus på sex stycken legitimerade psykologer, som har arbetat inom yrket i minst 3 år.                       Resultatet visar att de utvalda respondenterna upplever att psykologyrket är ett tungt yrke, och att det därmed krävs erfarenhet för att lära sig om hur en kan hantera all information på bästa sätt. Det visar sig även att det existerar förväntningar på respondenterna, som gör att de påverkas och använder sig av olika strategier för att kunna dra en gräns mellan arbete och privatliv. Resultatet analyserades med hjälp av tidigare forskning som handlar om gränsdragning mellan arbete och övrigt liv, läkares medlidande med patienter och arbetsrelaterad utbrändhet, samt teorier gällande roller och empati.

This study seeks to explore ways in which the emotional content of probation intervention with offenders is central to practitioner/offender relationships, but constitutes a discourse that has been largely silenced within an organisation that favours a business orientated model. Questions addressed within this thesis relate to how practitioners understand, regulate and work with emotion; how the organisational 'silence' on the subject is maintained and reinforced; the costs of this silencing and how practitioners endeavour to surmount it in their daily working practices. The term 'emotional literacy' (Killick 2006) captures the phenomenon of 'emotion work' or the 'soft skills' that many practitioners use in pursuit of the 'hard work' of assessing, managing and enabling change in offenders. It is a qualitative study which has used a thematic analysis to explore the concept of emotional literacy in probation practice. The study is informed by a theoretically eclectic approach and uses Layder's theories of social domain (Layder 2006), and of interpersonal control (Layder 2004), as frameworks for analysis. Findings from the research demonstrate that the practice of emotional literacy is significantly affected by organisational and contextual constraints. The tensions inherent for practitioners in holding emotionally conflicting and ambivalent positions in their practice with offenders are illustrated. There is evidence that practitioners predominantly exercise interpersonal emotional control through benign means. However, some concerns were highlighted by respondents of the risk of more collusive, manipulative or even repressive means of interpersonal control being deployed. It is argued that in the absence of training and support in the area of emotions and emotion management, most of this 'underground' emotional work is subjective, idiosyncratic, undervalued and largely unnoticed by the organisation. It is further argued, that the silencing of the discourse imposes a burden on workers, providing them with few opportunities to explore the implications of their emotions in practice, and limiting the effectiveness of the organisation in enabling offenders to change. The research also reveals some gender implications. An argument is developed for the explicit building of emotional resources within the organisation to sustain the development, enhancement and support of emotional literacy in the workforce, and for an increased profile to be afforded these 'soft skills' in policy debates.