Sustainability and environmental responsibility is increasingly growing in importance. Solving the environmental problems of the planet will one day become the responsibility of future scientists. For this reason, and with the introduction of new chemical legislation (REACH) driving change it is essential that current students are given a broad introduction to sustainability and environmental responsibility in order to equip them as graduates for future practice in the chemical sciences. At the University of Bradford the aim is to teach sustainability and environmental responsibility by embedding it throughout the entire chemistry curriculum rather than teaching it in standalone lectures. Once this has been established within chemistry it is expected that this will potentially provide a template for other areas of laboratory science within the university. In order to achieve the aim of this project, students, staff and potential employers tookpart in surveys with a view to inform curriculum development. Examples of best practice were sought and used as guidance for the development of directed learning activities for use as post lab questions and utilisation of the twelve principles of green chemistry. Green chemistry metrics were applied to undergraduate experiments to test how well they would work in terms of ease of use, applicability and judging ¿greenness¿. It was found that these were not very effective for use within an undergraduate laboratory due to applicability and judging ¿greenness¿, however this work highlighted other areas for improvement. As a result of this work an environmental assessment metric system was developed for use within an undergraduate setting. / Ecoversity at the University of Bradford

A thermo-chemical treatment method was used to produce biogenic amorphous silica from South African sugarcane and maize residues. Different fractions of South African sugarcane (leaves, pith, and fiber) were processed for silica production. The biomass samples were leached with either 7 wt% citric acid or 7 wt% sulfuric acid at 353 K for 2 h prior to being rinsed, dried and combusted using a four-step program ranging from room temperature to 873 K in a furnace. The characterization of the pre-treated biomass samples was conducted using thermogravimetric analysis (TG/DTA), X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF) and elemental analysis (CHN), while the final products were characterized by XRF, X-ray diffraction (XRD), elemental analysis, nitrogen physisorption and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Citric acid pre-treatment proved to be an attractive alternative to mineral acids. Amorphous biogenic silica was produced from sugarcane leaves in good quality (0.1 wt% residual carbon and up to 99.3 wt% silica content). The produced biogenic silica also had great textural properties such as a surface area of up to 323 m2 g−1, average pore diameter of 5.0 nm, and a pore volume of 0.41 cm3 g−1.

This work introduces a cost and time efficient procedure to specifically increase mesopore volume and specific surface area of biogenic silica (specific surface area: 147 m2 g−1 and mesopore volume: 0.23 cm3 g−1) to make it suitable for applications in adsorption or as catalyst support. The target values were a specific surface area of ∼500 m2 g−1 and a mesopore volume of ∼0.40–0.50 cm3 g−1 as these values are industrially relevant and are reached by potential concurring products such as precipitated silica, silica gel, and fumed silica. The applied process of partial pseudomorphic transformation was carried out as a single reaction step in a microwave reactor instead of commonly used convective heating. In addition, the conventionally used surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTABr) was substituted by the low-cost surfactant (Arquad® 16-29, cetyltrimethylammonium chloride (CTACl) aqueous solution). The influence of microwave heating, type of surfactant as well as the concentration of NaOH and CTACl on the textural and structural properties of the modified biogenic silica was investigated using nitrogen adsorption as well as scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The results show that the textural parameters of the modified biogenic silica can be exactly controlled by the amount of NaOH in the reaction solution. By variation of the NaOH concentration, specific surface areas in the range of 215–1,001m2 g−1 andmesopore volumes of 0.25–0.56 cm3 g−1 were achieved after reaction at 393 K for 10min. The presented microwave route using the low-cost surfactant solution decreases the reaction time by 99% and as shown in an example for German prices, lowers the costs for the surfactant by 76–99%.

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Sammanfattning på svenska: Målet med projektet var att utveckla ett system av disperserade bindemedel för non-wovenindustrin som inte förutsätter omfattande förändringar i befintliga processer. Bindemedlet ska vara biobaserat, bionedbrytbart och endast bestå av byggstenar som är matkontaktsgodkända av FDA och BFR. Ett disperserat system möjliggör en hög torrhalt tillsammans med en låg viskositet som i kombination med stor anpassningsbarhet kan konkurrera med fossila bindemedel på marknaden. Denna studie behandlar användande och modifiering av vattenlösliga biopolymerer för utveckling av ett disperserat system med förmågan att binda samman fibrer i ett non-wovenmaterial. Flertal analytiska metoder och observationer används, som Fourier transform infraröd spektroskopi (FTIR), laddningsdensitet, viskositet och optisk mikroskopi, för att mäta framgången av konceptet. Olika modifieringar och ympningsstrategier användes under projektet och deras inverkan på biopolymerer diskuteras. / The aim of the project was to develop a dispersed binder as a drop-in solution for non-woven industry. The binder should be bio-based, biodegradable and consist only of FDA and BFR food contact approved components. A dispersed system enables the binder to have a high solid content while having a low viscosity. This feature, in combination with a binder with tunable properties, can be a competitive alternative for the fossil-based binders in the market.  This study focuses on the use and modification of biopolymers with binding capacity to form a dispersed system from water-soluble biopolymers. The success of the reaction was evaluated by using a multitude of analytical methods and observation, such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), charge distribution and viscosity measurements. Several modification strategies and grafting agents were used and their impact on the biopolymer is discussed.

Several ligands derived from D-glucosamine, designed for different catalytic reactions havebeen synthesized. The ligands for homogeneous catalysis based on 1,2-glucodiamine wereprepared, and used in reactions of allylic alkylation, hydrogenation and Michael addition.Supported Aqueous Phase Catalyst (SAPC) system was prepared from D-glucosamine anduse with very good results in Suzuki Miyaura cross coupling reactions. Catalyst was alsorecycled. Attempt to prepare ligands grafted on SBA-silica matrix were made as well asligands containing poly(ethylene) glycol moiety.

Les matériaux utilisés pour les applications biomédicales doivent être biocompatibles, et idéalement biodégradables. Les acides biliaires proviennent de sources naturelles et sont présents dans le corps humain. De plus, les polyetsers composés en partie de ces molécules possèdent des liens hydrolysables, une mémoire de forme thermique, et leur flexibilité peut être variée. Jusqu’à présent, la synthèse de ces matériaux exigeait l’utilisation de catalyseurs contenant des métaux de transition lourds pour l’étape de macrocyclisation. Puisque la polymérisation par ouverture de cycle nécessite des précurseurs cycliques, l’étape de lactonisation fut réalisée par voie enzymatique, au lieu d’utiliser des catalyseurs à plus grande toxicité. De plus, une seule étape enzymatique a pu remplacer deux étapes de synthèse organique, avec un rendement de 58 % et l’obtention d’un matériel transparent. Ces macrocycles nouvellement obtenus ont par la suite été polymérisés par ouverture de cycle, de façon similaire à la technique élaborée par notre groupe en 2013, tout en optimisant la durée de réaction. En 15 heures, une masse molaire relativement grande de 40 000 g/mol fut obtenue, tout en maintenant la dispersité sous 1.4 et la température de transition vitreuse à 12 °C. Pour valider le principe de cyclisation et de polymérisation enzymatique, les conditions optimales pour combiner l’acide thapsique et le 1,10-decanediol furent préalablement déterminées. Entre autres, la durée de réaction et la quantité d’enzyme nécessaire furent analysées. Les polymères semi-crystallins obtenus possèdent aussi de grandes masses molaires et de basses dispersités. Or, il est possible d’utiliser un enzyme à la fois pour la fermeture et pour l’ouverture de cycle de molécules rigides à cœur stéroïdal, telles que les acides biliaires. Cette synthèse permet la production de matériaux plus biocompatibles, tout en favorisant plusieurs principes de chimie verte. / Materials used in biomedical applications need to be biocompatible and ideally biodegradable. Bile acids are natural occurring compounds found in humans, and their polyesters possess hydrolyzable bonds, thermal shape memory and tunable flexibility. Until now, the synthetic pathway to obtain such materials required transition metal catalysts for the macrocyclization step, which is necessary to perform ring-opening polymerization (ROP). To circumvent the need for such catalysts, enzymatic ring closing was performed using lipases. Conveniently, two synthetic steps were replaced with a single step, using a renewable and reusable catalyst, with 58 % yield and a colorless product. The bile acid-containing macrocycles were then enzymatically polymerized as described in our previous work, while optimizing the reaction time. In 15 hours, relatively high Mw of 40 000 g/mol were obtained, while maintaining the dispersity ≤ 1.4 and a glass transition temperature of about 12 °C. As a proof-of-concept, conditions for the enzymatic ring closure of thapsic acid with 1,10-decanediol were determined beforehand. While optimizing for enzyme amount and reaction time, enzymatic ROP conditions to obtain di- and tetralactones from these monomers were established. The resulting semi-crystalline polymers also possess relatively high molecular weight and low dispersity. Hence, the use of lipases for both ring-closing and ring-opening reactions now shows potential for large, rigid moieties in addition to more mobile structures, using the same enzyme. This is a step towards the production of more biocompatible polymers, with a synthetic pathway that follows many green chemistry principles.

Les essais préliminaires pour préparer des alcoolates de fer à partir du bichlorure ou bibromure de fer (II), en les combinant avec des ligands de type diimino pyridine, ont engendré la formation de complexes homoleptiques et hétéroleptiques, dépendant des substituants sur les branches imines du ligand. Ces complexes homoleptiques octaédriques et paramagnétiques ont été étudiés par rapport à leurs propriétés spectroscopiques et cristallographiques. De plus, la synthèse des complexes de fer hétéroleptique a engendré de bons précurseurs penta-coordonnés pour les réactions de substitution de ligands avec des alcoolates de métaux alcalins, de manière à produire les dialcoolates de fer (II) désirés. Des techniques d’analyse telles que la spectroscopie UV-vis, l’analyse élémentaire, la spectrométrie de masse à haute résolution et la cristallographie aux rayons X ont été utilisées pour caractériser ces complexes de fer. L’activité catalytique de ces complexes de fer (II) a aussi été étudiée par rapport à la polymérisation du lactide; les dialcoolates convoités ont été générés in-situ en raison de la difficulté à produire et à isoler les dérivés alcoolates des complexes diimino pyridine de fer. Une étude approfondie a aussi été faite sur les réactions de polymérisation, surtout par rapport aux valeurs de conversion à l’échelle du temps, ainsi qu’à la tacticité des chaines de polymères obtenues. Ces analyses ont été effectuées par l’entremise de la spectroscopie de résonance magnétique nucléaire, de la chromatographie d’exclusion stérique, et de la spectrométrie de masse MALDI (désorption-ionisation laser assistée par matrice). / Initial attempts to prepare iron alkoxide complexes, from iron (II) dichloride or dibromide, in combination with various bis(imino) pyridine ligands, led to the formation of homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes depending on the N-substituents on the imino moieties. A study was made of the resulting paramagnetic octahedral homoleptic complexes, with respect to their spectroscopic properties, as well as their crystallographic parameters. Alternatively, the synthesis of penta-coordinate heteroleptic iron (II) complexes provided good precursors for the ligand substitution reactions with alkaline alkoxides, to produce the desired iron bis(alkoxide) derivatives. Methods such as UV-vis spectroscopy, elemental analysis, high resolution mass spectrometry and X-ray crystallography were used for the characterization of these iron complexes. The catalytic activity of these iron (II) complexes was investigated with respect to lactide polymerization; the desired bis(alkoxide) species were generated in-situ due to the difficulties in isolating pure alkoxide derivatives of the bis(imino) pyridine iron (II) complexes. An informative study was made of both time-scale conversion values, as well as tacticity properties of the resulting polylactic acid chains, through proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, as well as MALDI (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization) mass spectrometry measurements.

L'activation de molécules inertes telles que les alcanes constitue l'un des défis les plus difficiles en catalyse, du fait de la grande stabilité de la liaison C-H. Pour répondre aux principes de la chimie verte, les méthodes de fonctionnalisation doivent respecter un certain nombre d'exigences, telles que l'utilisation de solvants et de réactifs non toxiques, la réduction des apports énergétiques, en association avec une activité élevée. Afin de satisfaire ces conditions, nous nous sommes dirigés vers l'utilisation d'un système enzymatique. En effet, les liaisons C-H non activées peuvent être fonctionnalisées en conditions douces par des monooxygénases, telles que les cytochromes P450, mais leur activité est relativement faible. Dans le but de disposer de cytochromes P450 plus actifs sur les alcanes, nous décrivons la fusion entre un membre de la famille des CYP153 et un partenaire donneur d'électrons. Cette protéine de fusion a été caractérisée, et ses propriétés catalytiques étudiées. Nous avons montré que la fusion augmente de manière considérable l'activité alcane hydroxylase. Nous avons, dans un second temps, continué d'exploiter le fort potentiel de ce biocatalyseur en tentant de réduire le volume de son site actif par mutagénèse dirigée, en vue de l'hydroxylation des alcanes gazeux, notamment le méthane. Enfin, différentes modifications des conditions réactionnelles nous ont permis d'atteindre une activité non égalée pour l'hydroxylation terminale de l'octane. / Activation of inert molecules such as alkanes is considered as one of the most difficult challenges in catalysis, due to the high stability of the C-H bond. To comply with the principles of green chemistry, functionalization methods must respect multiple requirements, such as the use of non-toxic solvents and reagents, in addition to reducing energy usage whilst maintaining maximal activity. To satisfy these conditions, we decided to focus on the use of an enzymatic system. Indeed, unactivated C-H bonds can be functionalized under mild conditions by monooxygenases, such as cytochrome P450s, but their activity is relatively limited. In order to have cytochrome P450s more active on alkanes, we describe the fusion between a member of the CYP153 family and an electron donor partner. This fusion protein has been characterized and its catalytic properties studied. We have shown that the fusion increases significantly the alkane hydroxylase activity. Our second step was to continue to exploit the potential of this biocatalyst by attempting to reduce the volume of its active site using site-directed mutagenesis for the hydroxylation of gaseous alkanes, including methane. Finally, various modifications of the reaction conditions allowed us to achieve the terminal hydroxylation of octane with a previously unequalled activity.

L’oxydation sélective des alcools en aldéhydes, acides ou cétones est une transformation très importante en chimie. L’emploi d’oxygène moléculaire comme oxydant permet de se placer dans une perspective de chimie verte, avec la production d’eau comme seul sous-produit principal. L’oxydation d’alcools primaires (1-octanol et géraniol) et d’alcools secondaires (2-octanol, 1-phénylethanol et alcools hétéroaromatiques dérivés de la pyridine) a été étudié en présence de catalyseurs au platine supportés sur charbon sous pression d’air, en solvant organique ou mélange à de l’eau. Les résultats ont montré une forte influence du solvant sur l’activité catalytique, avec un effet promoteur très important de l’eau sur la réaction. Cet effet a été discuté sur la base de différentes hypothèses. La promotion des catalyseurs au platine par le bismuth a permis d’observer des modifications de l’activité avec un effet positif en particulier dans l’oxydation des alcools hétéroaromatiques secondaires. La désactivation observée lors de l’oxydation de certains substrats a été analysée et des solutions ont été proposées pour la surmonter. / The selective alcohols oxidation to aldehydes, acids and ketones is an important transformation in chemistry. The use of molecular oxygen as oxidant is in adequation with a green chemistry perspective, since water is the only by-product. The oxidation of primary alcohols (1-octanol and geraniol) and secondary alcohols (2-octanol, 1-phenylethanol and pyridine substituted alcohols) has been studied in the presence of platinum supported carbon catalysts under air pressure in organic or mixed organic/aqueous media. The results have shown a strong influence of the solvent on the catalytic activity, with an important promoting effect of water on the reaction. This effect has been discussed based on several hypotheses. The promotion of platinum supported catalysts by bismuth has shown some modifications of the activity, with a positive effect in particular in the oxidation of secondary heteroaromatic alcohols. The deactivation observed during the oxidation reaction of some substrates has been analyzed and some solutions have been proposed to overcome the problem.