Carbon (C) is an essential element for all life. However, modern livestock keeping and usage of carbon through burning of fossil fuels are resulting in increased concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere, two important greenhouse gases (GHG).  Rising concentrations of  GHGs in the atmosphere  is one of the world’s most pressing issues  and  is evidently resulting in rising global temperatures. Nations are fighting to reach net zero emissions of carbon dioxide, and Sweden has set out to have net zero emissions by 2045. To reach this goal, system changes are needed over all sectors in Sweden. The aim of this study is therefore to provide a holistic picture of anthropogenic carbon flows, sources and sinks in Sweden to contribute to a better understanding of the functioning of the Swedish anthropogenic  carbon system. This is done by quantifying the most significant  anthropogenic  carbon sources, flows, and sinks, and visualise them in substance flow charts. The results from this study will thus provide insight into the functioning of the Swedish anthropogenic carbon system.  Through the practical usage of Substance Flow Analysis, this study identifies and quantifies anthropogenic  carbon flows between the sectors set out by  the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories; (i) Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU), (ii) Industrial Processes and Product Use (IPPU), (iii) Energy, and (iv) Waste. The study also regards imports, exports, extractions from the lithosphere, and emissions to the atmosphere. Furthermore, the study analyses and visualises how carbon flows between different activities within each above-mentioned sector.  The major identified carbon flows occur in the Energy sector, the IPPU sector, and the AFOLU sector. In the Energy sector,  transportation  and  electricity production  &  domestic heating  are  the main contributing activities to emissions of carbon, and in the IPPU sector, industrial processing is subjected to the largest carbon flows. The carbon flows related to  the  transportation,  electricity production  & domestic heating and  industrial  processing activities depend largely on fossil carbon. Targeting these activities with  measures to reduce fossil fuels could potentially have  positive trade-off effects on the Swedish  anthropogenic  carbon system.  The forestry activity in the AFOLU sector  act as an important carbon sink, through capturing significant amounts of carbon each year.  The  result  from this study  provides  a holistic  visualisation  of the  Swedish carbon flows, sources and sinks that occur from anthropogenic activities. It  can be used as tool to describe the relation between different sectors and activities, and it contributed to an understanding of the functioning of the Swedish anthropogenic carbon system. / Kol (C) är en väsentlig beståndsdel för allt liv. Modern  boskapshållning och användning av kol genom förbränning av fossila bränslen leder dock till ökade koncentrationer av koldioxid och metan i atmosfären, två viktiga växthusgaser (GHG). Stigande koncentrationer av växthusgaser i atmosfären är en av världens mest akuta frågor och leder till stigande globala temperaturer. Nationer världen över kämpar för att nå nettonollutsläpp av koldioxid och Sverige har satt som mål att ha nettonollutsläpp till 2045. För att nå detta mål krävs flera systemförändringar inom alla sektorer i Sverige Syftet med denna studie är därmed att ge en helhetsbild av antropogena kolflöden, källor och sänkor i Sverige, vilket kan bidra till en bättre förståelse för  det antropogena kolets kretslopp i det  svenska  systemet. Detta görs genom att kvantifiera de viktigaste antropogena kolkällorna, flödena och sänkorna, och visualisera dem i ämnesflödesscheman.  Resultaten från denna studieger  därmed  insikt i  det svenska  antropogena kolkretsloppet. Genom tillämpning av ämnesflödesanalys identifierar och kvantifierar denna studie  antropogena kolflöden mellan de sektorer som anges i 2006 års IPCC:s riktlinjer för nationella inventeringar av växthusgaser; (i) Jordbruk, skogsbruk och annan markanvändning (AFOLU), (ii) Industriella processer och produktanvändning (IPPU), (iii) Energi och (iv) Avfall. Studien omfattar även import, export, utvinning från litosfären och utsläpp till atmosfären. Vidare analyserar och visualiserar studien hur kol flödar mellan olika verksamheter inom varje ovan nämnda sektor. De största identifierade kolflödena förekommer inom energisektorn, IPPU-sektorn och AFOLU-sektorn. Inom energisektorn är transporter  samt  elproduktion och uppvärmning de huvudsakliga bidragande aktiviteterna  till utsläpp av kol, och inom IPPU-sektorn  står industrier  för de största kolflödena. Kolflödena relaterade till transporter, elproduktion och uppvärmning,  samt  industriell bearbetning beror till stor del på fossil energi. Riktade åtgärder för att minska användningen av fossila bränslen inom dessa  aktiviteter  kan potentiellt ha positiva effekter  på det svenska  antropogena kolkretsloppet. Skogsbruk i AFOLU-sektorn fungerar som en viktig kolsänka genom att fånga upp betydande mängder kol varje år. Resultatet från denna studie ger en holistisk visualisering av de svenska kolflöden, källor och sänkor som uppstår från antropogen verksamhet. Den kan användas som ett verktyg för att beskriva relationen mellan olika sektorer och verksamheter och bidra till en förståelse för det svenska antropogena kolets kretslopp.

No description available.

Thesis (PhD (Process Engineering)--Stellenbosch University, 2006. / My applied engineering research and industrial application work of the past 20 years is presented in this dissertation. It is the conjecture of my work that only if thorough first principles knowledge of the depth of process metallurgy and recycling is available, can meaningful first principles environmental models be developed. These models can then evaluate technology, provide well argued and first principles environmental information to our tax paying consumer society as well as to legislators and environmentalists. Only through this path can one estimate the limits of recycling and its technology, hence evaluate the true boundaries of sustainability. My work with students has presently culminated in the detailed modelling and simulation of recycling systems for post-consumer goods. Notably the models are finding an application in the prediction of legally required recycling rates for automobiles. The models provide first principles arguments for less stringent EU recycling legislation and the integration of the first principles models in computer aided design tools of the automotive industry as part of a large EU 6th Framework (project managed by Volkswagen and the other European car producers). Presently these models are also being converted to model the Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) as well as water recycling systems respectively, both for industry in The Netherlands. This unique rigorous integration of systems engineering, reactor technology and process control theory is the basis of all my work to describe recycling systems as dynamic feedback control loops. My large body of acquired industrial knowledge renders these models practical and can hence be used by the automotive and recycling industries. The origins of this work may be found in the various cited publications and reports to industry by myself (due to my close association with industry as well as industrial experience) over the past 20 years as well as the work of my students, covering topics such as: • system optimization models for flotation, mineral beneficiation and recycling systems and applying these for design for recycling and argue for better/improved first-principles based legislation, • industrial measurement, modelling and simulation of industrial extractive process pyrometallurgical reactors as well waste incinerators and recycling plants, • various activities in other areas such as hydrometallurgy, clean and new breakthrough technology, and • process control of industrial metallurgical reactors by among others the application of artificial intelligence techniques. All the ideas of the last years have been worked out with students and have been summarized in our book: “The Metrics of Material and Metal Ecology, Harmonizing the resource, technology and environmental cycles”.

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The theoretical and conceptual framework includes: industrial ecology, strategic networks and sustainable competitive advantage. In the empirical part of the qualitative nature, which has the natural environment as a direct source of data and the researcher as a fundamental instrument, a case study was carried out, which is a specific process chosen for the development of this research, through exploratory research with a company Brazilian company for the recycling of electronic circuit boards, which has been operating in the market for more than 15 years, exporting this type of material for processing in secondary smelters abroad. In all, seven in-depth interviews were conducted with the managing partners of the company, and one executive of the smelter processing company abroad. From these interviews, three of them requested confidentiality of both their identities and the content presented. The rest are in this in the research described in their entirety. As results, the main findings indicate that a company to participate in a network, must have proprietary resources, its full domain and knowledge, such as: access to information, resources, markets and technologies with the advantages of learning and economies of scale And scope allowing companies to achieve their strategic objectives as risk reduction and outsourcing of the stages of the value chain and organizational functions. These resources must also be those of the other companies in the network; There must still be a durable and reliable relationship over time, a relationship that is not opportunistic and that generates mutual trust. With these elements we will have the creation of ties, which can be identified as links of common interest, which will keep the network cohesive and competitive in their respective markets. This relationship can generate over time a sustainable competitive advantage, which can express superiority of the network in relation to its competition, adding value, which can not be simultaneously implemented by other companies. / Esta pesquisa investiga como redes estratégicas contribuem para o desempenho financeiro e operacional de uma empresa de reciclagem em âmbito internacional. O referencial teórico e conceitual inclui: ecologia industrial, redes estratégicas e vantagem competitiva sustentável. Na parte empírica de natureza qualitativa, que tem o ambiente natural como fonte direta de dados e o pesquisador como instrumento fundamental, foi realizado um estudo de caso, que é um processo específico escolhido para o desenvolvimento desta pesquisa, através de pesquisa exploratória com uma empresa brasileira de reciclagem de placas de circuito eletrônico, que atua no mercado há mais de 15 anos, exportando esse tipo de material para processamento em fundições secundárias no exterior. Ao todo foram conduzidas sete entrevistas em profundidade com os sócios gestores da empresa, e um executivo da fundição processadora no exterior. Dessas entrevistas, três delas solicitaram sigilo tanto de suas identidades, como dos conteúdos apresentados. As demais estão nesta na pesquisa descritas na sua totalidade. Também foram analisados seis estudos e relatórios nacionais e internacionais, e mais de 200 páginas de matérias publicadas em mídia impressa e digital sobre o tema. Como resultados, os principais achados indicam que uma empresa para participar de uma rede, tem que ter recursos proprietários, do seu pleno domínio e conhecimento, tais como: acesso à informação, recursos, mercados e tecnologias com as vantagens de aprendizado e economias de escala e escopo permitindo às empresas atingirem a seus objetivos estratégicos como diminuição de riscos e terceirização dos estágios da cadeia de valor e funções organizacionais. Tais recursos devem também ser os das outras empresas da rede; tem ainda que existir um relacionamento durável e confiável ao longo do tempo, relacionamento esse, não oportunista, e que gere confiança mútua. Com esses elementos teremos então a criação de laços, que podem ser identificados como vínculos de comum interesse, que manterão a rede coesa e competitiva nos seus respectivos mercados de atuação. Essa relação pode gerar ao longo do tempo uma vantagem competitiva sustentável, que pode expressar superioridade da rede em relação a sua concorrência, agregando valor, que não possa ser simultaneamente incorporado por outras empresas.

O intenso crescimento industrial associado às pressões de todos os setores da sociedade por processos, produtos e serviços mais ambientalmente corretos, levou ao surgimento de novos paradigmas de desenvolvimento que assegurem a perpetuação de recursos para as futuras gerações, alicerçada no tripé da sustentabilidade. Nesse contexto, para o setor produtivo, é nítida a necessidade de que os sistemas humanos devam ser considerados como parte dos sistemas naturais e se aproximar ao máximo das características destes. Essa concepção de sistemas industriais similares aos ecossistemas naturais, onde pouquíssimas perdas são verificadas, é a base do conceito de Ecologia Industrial, principal conceito usado no desenvolvimento desse trabalho para melhoria da sustentabilidade de uma empresa no setor eletroeletrônico, o que até o presente momento ainda não havia sido estudado. A metodologia adotada seguiu as premissas principais da Ecologia Industrial integradas ao Sistema Integrado de Gestão, a saber: o estabelecimento de ecossistemas industriais, a medição de desempenho através dos graus de sustentabilidade, e o amplo acesso à informação, via criação de um software customizado de Ecologia Industrial, que considera inclusive a comparação de produtos, com metodologia similar ao início de Análise do Ciclo de Vida simplificado, no que concerne ao desenvolvimento de novos produtos. Neste trabalho, o estudo de caso considerou uma empresa de grande porte e uma das características mais importantes observadas neste trabalho foram as similaridades, no país e no exterior, para implantação de sistemas de prevenção de poluição na área de microeletrônica. No que tange à área de Surface Mouting Technology, o estudo mostrou que, ao contrário dos setores de base, o maior impacto ambiental está relacionado à geração de resíduos sólidos e significativas perdas ambientais e econômicas são percebidas devido à Gestão de Fim de Tubo. A análise da área de Printed Circuit Board mostrou que ecossistemas industriais incipientes existem, tanto para água como para resíduos sólidos. 6 Através dos estudos de caso interno a essa empresa, foi possível concluir que no setor produtivo, mesmo em empresas de grande porte, que apresentam princípios, políticas e sistemas de gestão claramente definidos, a questão da sustentabilidade não é compreendida e aplicada em seu sentido mais amplo. Quanto aos ecossistemas industriais internos, ferramenta fundamental da Ecologia Industrial, a formação é muito difícil em função de tamanha distinção dos processos existentes em cada planta industrial. Notou-se a viabilidade, com ganhos expressivos, da formação de ecossistemas externos principalmente para dois tipos de co-produtos da empresa, metais nobres e óleos. Assim, conclui-se que as ferramentas da Ecologia Industrial adotadas para melhorar a sustentabilidade empresarial propiciam maior eficiência a partir da adoção de métricas, atingem, em geral, a maioria dos envolvidos e operações, permitem melhor formatação e padronização de processos, favorecem a visão sistêmica da organização, tornando a tomada de decisão um processo factual e por fim, permite a implantação de métodos e/ou procedimentos para mudança estratégica, incluindo a mudança cultural, fator essencial para o desenvolvimento. Deste modo, foi possível observar que a formação de tais ecossistemas industriais, em geral, promove uma melhora ambiental, econômica e social. Estas ferramentas, muito provavelmente, podem ser rapidamente aplicadas, seguindo-se a metodologia proposta, em qualquer empreendimento, independente de seu porte ou processo de produção. / The industrial development and the increasing pressure for more environmentally friendly processes, products and services led to new development paradigms, based on the three sustainability pillars, that essentially assure resource availability for the next generations. The need for making human systems part of the natural ecosystems and similar to natural environment is clearly stated. This approach, which is the basis of Industrial Ecology, aims to enhance industrial symbiosis cooperating to mitigate process or material loss. Industrial Ecology was the main concept used to improve sustainability at an electronic company, first applied to the industrial area in Brazil. The defined methodology followed the most important premises of Industrial Ecology aligned to the Integrated Management Systems which consists in the establishment of industrial ecosystems, performance evaluation through sustainability levers and the spread of information to stakeholders, by the development of a customized Industrial Ecology software, which also compares products with the simplified Life Cycle Assessment methodology, when it comes to the development of new products. Indeed, the case study has been conducted at a big enterprise and the similarities for Pollution Prevention implementation between the Brazilian facility and the European one were the most important features related to the microelectronics area. Regarding the Surface Mouting Technology area, this study has shown that unlike other segments, the end of pipe is still applied. The most relevant environmental impact is the generation of solid waste and therefore significant economic and environmental loss is easily observed. The Printed Circuit Board sector was also analyzed and the results showed that industrial ecosystems are not formalized but do exist for water and solid waste. Important issues were concluded such as the idea that even though big enterprises present principles, policy and sound management systems, the sustainability concept is not fully comprehensive and applied. The development of industrial ecosystems is considered one of the fundamental tools of industrial ecology. It is hard to establish them within the facilities 8 once the processes differ significantly. However, the creation of external ecosystems for metals and oils, leads to great benefit. It was possible to conclude that the Industrial Ecology concept tools used in the company did benefit its industrial sustainability because it allowed more efficient processes through the use of metrics, involved most of the employees and operations, favored better process standardization, enhance the systemic approach making the decision process easier once it is based on real time facts and it finally contributed to the adoption of methods, systems and procedures that enabled deep strategic change and as a consequence improved cultural change, which is one of the essential aspects of the sound sustainable development. Finally, it is suggested that Industrial Ecology be used as a fruitful metaphor for facilitating the improvement of sustainability. The tools developed in this study might be easily applied to any enterprise, independently of the level or production processes. Ecosystems

A indústria calçadista faz intenso uso de recursos naturais e gera grande volume e diversidade de resíduos ao longo da produção; muitos deles são perigosos, oferecendo riscos ao ambiente e à saúde humana. Nos produtos, é utilizada ampla variedade de materiais, o que dificulta o seu tratamento ao fim da vida útil, tornando o resíduos pós-consumo um agravante para a questão dos resíduos nessa indústria. A abordagem da prevenção de resíduos busca, de maneira proativa, diminuir ou evitar o ingresso de materiais ou substâncias no fluxo dos resíduos, prevenindo assim os impactos causados por eles no ambiente. A adoção de práticas preventivas na indústria de calçados pode contribuir para mitigar impactos oriundos de todo o ciclo de vida desse produto. Assim, esta pesquisa teve o objetivo de estudar o fenômeno da prevenção de resíduos na indústria calçadista brasileira, buscando sistematizar iniciativas e práticas já existentes e discuti-las à luz da literatura, de modo a encontrar desafios e oportunidades para expansão dessas atividades. Para a análise dos achados, adotou-se o viés conceitual da Ecologia Industrial. Foi realizado um estudo de caso descritivo-exploratório de caso único a indústria calçadista brasileira com múltiplas unidades de análise, buscando responder às seguintes perguntas: i) Como vem ocorrendo a prevenção de resíduos na produção de calçados?; ii) Quais são os desafios e oportunidades para avanços da prevenção nesse setor? A pesquisa revelou que a adoção de atividades de prevenção na indústria calçadista ainda ocorre de maneira tímida, e foca principalmente a escolha por materiais com menor toxicidade ou reciclados, e a eficiência no uso de matérias-primas. Esta última está muito ligada à redução de custos; no setor de componentes ocorre principalmente na indústria química, com o reaproveitamento interno dos subprodutos, e na manufatura, ocorre na otimização do corte das partes do calçado. De modo geral, a produção calçadista brasileira se caracteriza por intensa competitividade, com a busca por redução de custos e maximização de ganhos. Isso apresenta desafios para a implementação das atividades de prevenção de resíduos por colocar como prioridade a busca por preços baixos, geralmente obtidos pela externalização de custos socioambientais; além disso, prejudica o interesse em colaborações entre empresas. As cadeias de produção são extensas e pouco articuladas, o que dificulta a circulação de informações e materiais entre empresas. Com relação aos materiais, a pesquisa revelou possibilidades de ciclagem dentro do ambiente produtivo para diversos deles, embora não sejam colocadas em prática. O caso da indústria calçadista brasileira se apresentou como emblemático para a crise do sistema econômico nos moldes do paradigma técnico-científico, (segundo o qual o desenvolvimento significa crescimento econômico), evidenciando a necessidade de uma mudança de paradigma e uma nova racionalidade material. / The footwear industry is characterized by intense natural resources input and large and diverse waste generation, many of which are hazardous, offering risks to the environment as well as human health. A wide variety of materials are used in the products, which hampers the treatment of post-consumption waste, worsening the scenario for the issue of waste in the footwear industry. Waste prevention aims at preventing or reducing both quantitative and qualitatively the waste flows, and thus, the environmental impacts caused by them. The adoption of prevention activities in the footwear industry contributes to the mitigation of several impacts associated with this products life cycle. This research had the objective of studying waste prevention in the Brazilian footwear industry, as to unveil and systematize existing initiatives and practices, discussing them in light of the literature on the subject and identifying the challenges and opportunities for their progress. The conceptual basis of Industrial Ecology was used to analyze the findings. A descriptive-exploratory single case study with multiple analysis units was conducted aiming at answering the research questions: i) How have waste prevention activities been occurring in the footwear production?; ii) What are the challenges and opportunities for the progress of waste prevention in this area? The research found that waste prevention activities in the footwear industry are still timid, focusing mainly the selection of less toxic or recycled materials, as well as efficiency in the use of raw materials. The last is connected to cost reduction, taking place in the component sector mainly in the chemical industry through the internal reutilization of byproducts and in the manufacture sector, through efficient cutting of the parts. In general, the Brazilian footwear production is characterized by high competitiveness, pursuing cost reduction and gain maximization. That presents challenges for the implementation of waste prevention activities for setting low prices as priority, usually obtained by the externalization of social and environmental costs. It also harms the interest in collaboration between organizations. The supply chains are wide and lack articulation, which hinders information and materials circulation between organizations. Regarding the materials, the research found cycling possibilities within the productive environment for several of them, although these are not put into practice. The case of the Brazilian footwear industry is emblematic for the crisis in the economic system based in the technical-scientific paradigm (according to which, development is equal to economic growth). It underlines the need for a paradigm shift, as well as a new material rationality.

Most countries show a relative decoupling of economic growth from domestic resource use, implying increased resource efficiency. However, international trade facilitates the exchange of products between regions with disparate resource productivity. Hence, for an understanding of resource efficiency from a consumption perspective that takes into account the impacts in the upstream supply chains, there is a need to assess the environmental pressures embodied in trade. We use EXIOBASE3, a new multiregional input-output database, to examine the rate of increase in resource efficiency, and investigate the ways in which international trade contributes to the displacement of pressures on the environment from the consumption of a population. We look at the environmental pressures of energy use, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, material use, water use, and land use. Material use stands out as the only indicator growing in both absolute and relative terms to population and gross domestic product (GDP), while land use is the only indicator showing absolute decoupling from both references. Energy, GHG, and water use show relative decoupling. As a percentage of total global environmental pressure, we calculate the net impact displaced through trade rising from 23% to 32% for material use (1995¿2011), 23% to 26% for water use, 20% to 29% for energy use, 20% to 26% for land use, and 19% to 24% for GHG emissions. The results show a substantial disparity between trade-related impacts for Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and non-OECD countries. At the product group level, we observe the most rapid growth in environmental footprints in clothing and footwear. The analysis points to implications for future policies aiming to achieve environmental targets, while fully considering potential displacement effects through international trade.

Estudos relacionados ao consumo de recursos e à emissão de resíduos na escala territorial local se originaram nas pioneiras pesquisas associadas ao conceito de metabolismo urbano. Nos últimos 15 anos, observa-se um crescimento do número de estudos aplicados a cidades, municípios ou regiões metropolitanas. A Análise dos Fluxos de Materiais - AFM (Material Flow Analysis) vem se consolidando como a abordagem metodológica predominante para esse tipo de investigação, a qual objetiva prover informações sobre fluxos de materiais e de energia, usualmente em unidades de massa, entrando e deixando uma sociedade. No entanto, todos os casos estudados na literatura prévia correspondem a capitais nacionais ou a municípios com centralidade econômica e de gestão do território na região as quais pertencem. Adicionalmente, não há estudos desenvolvidos no Brasil. Em face dessas lacunas, o objetivo principal deste trabalho é a caracterização dos fluxos de materiais associados ao metabolismo de um município brasileiro de pequeno porte (MBPP). Para tanto se adotou como estudo de caso o município de Feliz-RS. Como objetivos intermediários da pesquisa estabeleceram-se: a) Identificação dos métodos existentes para caracterização de fluxos de materiais na escala local e análise das possibilidades de aplicação no contexto dos MBPP; b) Desenvolvimento de um detalhamento metodológico da AFM, para a caracterização dos fluxos de materiais de MBPP; c) Análise das limitações e oportunidades para uso da AFM, na avaliação de sustentabilidade ambiental de municípios. Como resultados, avalia-se que o detalhamento metodológico desenvolvido é funcional e replicável para municípios brasileiros com o mesmo perfil, além de fornecer informações bastante detalhadas acerca dos fluxos ocorrentes no município adotado como caso. Assim, é possível realizar análises com diferentes níveis de desagregação. Quanto aos fluxos de materiais de Feliz, encontrou-se que o consumo doméstico de materiais per capita (DMC/ per capita) do município é alto, se comparado àqueles já caracterizados na literatura. Essa constatação corrobora com a proposição de que municípios com produção primária e secundária tendem a demandar, proporcionalmente, mais recursos do que aqueles que são consumidores finais. Quanto ao uso da AFM, na avaliação de sustentabilidade ambiental, verifica-se um alto potencial, com vantagens, em relação a outros métodos correntemente adotados. Entretanto, essas oportunidades ainda são pouco exploradas no contexto internacional e ignoradas no Brasil, ao se analisar a literatura existente. / Studies related to resources consumption and wastes emissions in a local territorial scale were originated from pioneering researches related to the urban metabolism concept. Over the past 15 years, there was a growth in the number of such studies applied to cities, municipalities and metropolitan areas. At the same time, Material Flow Analysis - MFA was consolidated as the predominant methodological approach for this type of research. However, it must be pointed out that all studied cases have been related to national capitals or counties, with economics centrality and land management in their own area. Besides, no studies of this nature were found as being developed in Brazil. Thus, the main goal of the research presented in this paper was to characterize material flows associated with the metabolism of a small Brazilian municipality and for this purpose the municipality of Feliz was adopted as a case study. Three intermediate objectives were established: a) To identify existing methods for material flows characterization on the local scale and to analyse the possibilities of applying them in the context of small Brazilian municipalities; b) to develop a MFA methodological detailing for the characterization of material flows of small Brazilian municipalities; c) to analyse constraints and opportunities for the use of MFA in the assessment of municipalities environmental sustainability. As results, it is considered that the methodological detailing developed raises the possibility of replicating the procedures applied in Feliz to other Brazilian municipalities, being this research a first and referential step in this direction. Besides, it provides very detailed information on flows occurring in the municipality adopted as the case study. Thus, it is possible ti further develop of analyses considering different levels of disaggregation. Concerning the material flows associated with the metabolism of Feliz, it was found that the studied municipality presents a DMC per capita comparable or superior to that of larger municipalities already analyzed by previous researches. This finding corroborates the hypothesis that municipalities with primary and secondary production tend to demand proportionately more resources than those who are the final consumers. Regarding the use of the MFA in the assessment of municipalities environmental sustainability, it was verified that it presents a high potential, with advantages over other methods currently adopted. However, when analyzing the existing literature it was noticed that these opportunities are still little explored in the international context and ignored in Brazil.

Les réserves de pétrole sont sur le déclin, les prix des ressources fossiles fluctuent et le CO 2 dégagé par leur consommation contribue inéluctablement au réchauffement climatique. Ce phénomène, conduit notre société vers l'utilisation accrue de biomasse pour la génération d'énergie, de composés chimiques et de matériaux. La réduction des déchets est considérée comme indissociable de cette transition énergétique et en opposition aux préjugés, l’accroissement des déchets organiques peut être bénéfique dans cette recherche de solutions alternatives. En effet, cela conduit à la génération de grandes quantités de matières qui peuvent représenter de potentielles ressources. De plus, changer le statut des déchets en coproduits pour la production de bioénergies n’entre pas en concurrence avec les filières alimentaires et cela constitue un des principaux enjeux des biotechnologies. Sous certaines conditions, les bioconversions anaérobies représentent des procédés d’ingénierie prometteurs pour accomplir le double enjeu de la valorisation des coproduits et de la production de molécules d’intérêt énergétique et chimique (biocarburants, chimie verte...). En revanche, l’innovation dans les biotechnologies blanches est nécessaire pour la production robuste, performante, rentable et environnementalement acceptable de biomolécules à partir de ressources renouvelables. Dans ce contexte, la société AFYREN a été pensée et créée pour répondre à ce défi mondial via sa technologie « tout en un », AFYNERIE, qui s’inspire de la nature et des sciences. L’objectif premier de ce travail de thèse, cœur du procédé AFYNERIE, était d’étudier les performances de microorganismes anaérobies, sous forme de souches pures ou de consortia pour la valorisation de substrats plus ou moins complexes via un processus de méthanogenèse avortée. Pour cela, il était nécessaire de considérer, déjà à l’échelle du laboratoire, une projection dans le monde industriel. Nous avons alors démontré les capacités de la diversité microbienne à produire des molécules plateformes à partir de coproduits agro-industriels réels en mode stérile puis non stérile. Cette étude s’est appuyée en parallèle sur la caractérisation et la dynamique des populations microbiennes mises en jeu. Ensuite, l’accumulation des métabolites, à la fois inhibiteurs et d’intérêt, dans les milieux fermentaires en mode discontinu et avec des rendements compétitifs, a débouché sur la nécessité de surpasser ces limitations par le passage à un mode continu. Pour ce faire, un procédé d’extraction biocompatible des synthons issus de l’opération de fermentation a été mise en œuvre selon différents mode de réalisations. Ce couplage des opérations unitaires, sous forme de fermentation extractive, a livré des résultats prometteurs tout en étant bâtit dans un cadre de bioraffinerie et d’écologie industrielle qui tend vers le « zéro déchet ». Enfin, à l’inverse des autres technologies émergentes, pour se placer dans une approche de drop-in, la biologie et la chimie ont été associées. Le but a été d’illustrer la multipotence des acides gras volatils (AGVs) en termes d’applications industrielles et de réaliser la preuve de concept de la transformation de la biomasse non alimentaire en biomolécules d’intérêt énergétique et chimique. Ces travaux ont permis de soulever les points clés du changement d’échelle du procédé AFYNERIE et d’entrevoir des perspectives tant fondamentales qu’appliquées. Cette brique technologique, de par sa philosophie multi-intrants/multi-produits, couplant fermentation-extraction-synthèse, permet d’initier la transition au stade pilote d’un procédé innovant compatible avec une future économie biosourcée. / Fossil oil reserves are decreasing, oil prices are fluctuating, and the CO 2 released by oil consumption contributes to global warming. These are driving our society towards increased use of biomass for energy, chemical compounds and other materials. Minimizing waste has been seen as a concern associated with alternative energy efforts. Contrary to expectation, increasing organic waste can be beneficial for alternative energy efforts, because it would result in large amounts of organic resources that can be potential raw materials. Moreover, using waste as a resource for bioenergy production does not compete with human or animal food or agricultural surfaces, and that is one of the greatest challenges facing biotechnology. Using waste as a resource for biomolecule production would thus be an interesting approach to reducing waste in the environment and producing renewable materials. Under specific conditions, detrital biomass can be converted into biomolecules of interest by microorganisms. Anaerobic fermentation techniques represent promising engineering processes for accomplishing the dual goals of waste reduction and renewable biomolecule production for biofuel and green chemistry markets. On the other hand, innovative fermentation processes are necessary for the strong, successful, cost-effective and eco-friendly production of bulk chemicals from renewable resources. In this context, AFYREN company was thought and founded to answer this world challenge through its “all in one” technology, AFYNERIE, which is inspired from the nature and sciences. The first objective of this thesis, heart of the AFYNERIE process, was to study the performances of anaerobic microorganisms, in the form of pure strains or of consortia for the valorization of more or less complex substrata via a process of failed methanogenesis. For that purpose, it was necessary to consider, already at the laboratory scale, a projection in the industrial world. Then, we demonstrated the capacities of the microbial diversity to produce platform molecules from real agro-industrial by-products in sterile and then non sterile mode. This study leaned in parallel on the characterization and the dynamics of involved microbial populations. Then, the accumulation of metabolites, which are at the same time inhibitory and of interest, in fermentative media in batch mode and with competitive yields, resulted in the necessity of surpassing these limitations by the passage in a continuous mode. To do this, a process consisted of a biocompatible extraction of synthons stemming from the operation of fermentation was implemented according to different mode of realizations. This coupling of single operations, in the form of extractive fermentation, delivered promising results while builds in a frame of biorefinery and industrial ecology which tightens towards a “zero waste”. Finally, contrary to the other emergent technologies, to take place in a drop-in approach, biology and chemistry were associated. The purpose was to illustrate the versatility of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in terms of industrial applications and to realize the proof of concept of the transformation of the non-food biomass in biomolecules of energy and chemical interest. These works allowed to underline key points of the scale-up of AFYNERIE process and to glimpse perspectives fundamental as well as applied perspectives. This technological brick, due to its multi-inputs / multi-products philosophy, coupling fermentation-extraction-synthesis, allows to introduce the transition to the pilot stage of an innovative process compatible with a future biobased economy.

<p>Design of products permits to yield goods and services to produce satisfaction on customers, which is measured as value. However, it is at this stage in which most of the environmental impact, from a lifecycle perspective, is added to the product. Eco-design aims at increasing value of products while reducing the burdens on the environment by means conscious design towards efficient use of resources. That efficiency, referred to as eco-efficiency, can be increased in a number of manners within environmental engineering. Traditionally, different fields have tackled materials, energy flows and products from different angles or approaches. In this thesis we describe Functional Sales (FS) and Industrial Ecology (IE) as examples of these. Within this latter, we put emphasis on Industrial Symbiosis (IS) and Eco-effectiveness. We consider these approaches are suitable to work in the framework of eco-design to increase ecoefficiency. By adding services to material products, and managing material and energy flows with a more ecological consciousness, we expect to increase value of products while reducing the impact on the environment.</p><p>To analyse this potential improvement, we developed a method involving a new eco-efficiency index (VERI), that recursively intends to ease decisions on possible eco-efficient alternatives. This index and its method are applied to a case study on management of olive oil supply in region of Murcia, Spain. Here, we propose three scenarios that will involve the implementation of FS and IE to compare the outcomes in value and environmental performance against an idealised current supply chain. The results obtained, although not accurate, suggest that FS and EI should be more taken into account in eco-design and, this latter, to also consider holistic viewpoints to find more eco-efficient alternatives for a product development.</p>