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La présente recherche traite le problème de la langue et de la traduction avec Martin Heidegger à partir de la notion grecque de logos, telle qu’elle apparaît chez Héraclite. Ce que le logos dévoile, c’est que la parole de l’homme est anticipée par une « parole » des choses, dans laquelle consiste leur être. Logos devient ainsi un nom pour le rapport entre l’être et l’homme. Compte tenu du fait que l’homme déploie ce rapport d’une manière inaccomplie, la question qui se pose est celle d’une authenticité possible, à atteindre à travers un saut vers le retrait de l’être, que Heidegger pense en tant qu’Ereignis. Analysant la portée de celui-ci à l’égard de l’histoire de l’être selon la lecture de Reiner Schürmann, on découvre le silence qui se tient en deçà de la manière grecque de concevoir le Logos et qui permet d’aborder la question de la langue sur une nouvelle base. Le but est de montrer que le déploiement de la langue figure un type particulier de rapport, qui s’avère être la manière la plus originaire dont le rapport, comme tel, devrait être conçu : à savoir, comme traduction. Ce dernier mot, loin de reprendre d’emblée les traits qu’on lui prête généralement, acquiert sa signification à partir de la langue, qui se laisse saisir comme traduction du silence en langue parlée par l’homme. Sur la base de cette description, les questions concernant la place de la langue à l’égard des choses et à l’égard de l’homme trouvent leur réponse, de même que des conséquences majeures pour la traduction entre les langues peuvent être tirées. Comme le rapport implique essentiellement une altérité, l’interrogation revient à chaque fois à une perspective éthique menant de la figure de l’être comme altérité originaire à celle d’autrui sous le sceau de la traduction conçue comme hospitalité, faisant la pensée de Heidegger entrer en dialogue avec celle de Jacques Derrida. / The present work treats the problem of language and translation along with Martin Heidegger, grounding itself in the Heraclitean notion of logos. The latter allows us to discover the fact that our speech is anticipated by a more originary one, namely the being of beings. Logos becomes thus a name for the relation between being and man. Yet considering the fact that man holds himself inauthentically in this relation, the most important question is how to attain a possible authenticity, which can only take place as a leap towards the concealment of being itself, and what Heidegger associates with the term Ereignis. By interpreting this notion in its connection with the history of being, following the reading of Reiner Schürmann, we discover the realm of silence which the Greeks and their thinking of logos could not unveil, and which sets a new ground for the problem of language. The aim is to show that the abode, i.e. the unfolding (Wesen) of language figures a special kind of relation ; moreover, it represents the most originary way in which the relation as such should be conceived, namely as translation. Far from possessing the general meaning we usually ascribe to it, the word translation acquires thus its sense from the unfolding of language itself, which is to be thought as a passage from the silence of being to the sonority of human language, indeed as translation of silence into sound, which proves to be a harmonic and tearing relation at the same time. On the basis of this description it becomes possible to reinterpret the “logical” relation between man and being through language and to draw a great number of consequences for the general praxis of translation between languages. Given that the idea of relation essentially implies an otherness, the research is constantly oriented towards an ethical approach of language and translation, bringing at the end Heidegger’s thinking in dialogue with Jacques Derrida on the field of hospitality

Although Plato's views on Friendship, or philia, are almost always found embedded in discussions of erotic love, I argue that these views nevertheless constitute a clear and compelling picture of the nature and value of the best kinds of friendship. Moreover, I suggest that these views on friendship present us with a surprising insight into Plato's overall conception of the practice of philosophy, as a personal process of striving for knowledge at the center of the best human life. To tease out these views on philia, I begin with a close reading of Plato's Phaedrus. As many have noted, this dialogue appears at first to be strangely disunified: its first half is concerned primarily with giving an account of erotic love, while its second half is devoted to a discussion of the nature and value of rhetoric. I begin by examining the theory of erotic love presented by Socrates in the 'palinode' at the center of the Phaedrus, and arguing that we can begin to see a theory of philia emerging from this account. I then argue that a central element of this theory of philia, as presented in the palinode to love, provides us with a link to the later discussion of rhetoric, and a unifying theme for the Phaedrus as a whole: the knowledge of souls. With this unifying theme in hand, I return to the account of philia, and eros, in the first half of the Phaedrus and, in light of this topic, draw further conclusions about Plato's views of the importance of philia, and eros, to philosophy. / text

Suivant la tendance de la coopération internationale, la recherche comparative entre les cultures devient de plus en plus importante. Dans la mesure où la sinologie et la culture de l’Occident se croisent sur certains points de vue notamment autour de la philosophie politique de Derrida fondée sur la recherche du terme d’amitié. Face à la violence politique au nom de la justice, de la démocratie ou des droit de l’homme, Derrida énonce que c’est la politique actuelle est dominée par la maladie auto-immunitaire, par laquelle la démocratie s’enferme à l’intérieur du territoire de l’Etat, dans la mesure où l’authenticité de la démocratie, à savoir la démocratie universelle n’est pas encore présente. Considérant que les réformes dans le cadre de la politique n’aident pas à résoudre l’auto-immunité, Derrida pense qu’il nous faut retourner à l’idéologie en repensant le terme d’amitié en tant que racine des relations humaines en société, dans le but d’accéder à l’idée de l’hospitalité inconditionnelle et par conséquent à la démocratie universelle. C’est aussi pourquoi Derrida commence sa recherche de la philosophie politique à partir du terme d’amitié. En ce sens, Derrida traite de l’amitié canonique dans l’histoire occidentale, à savoir l’amitié antique, l’amitié chrétienne et l’amitié rationaliste, en aboutissant à la conclusion que l’amitié canonique de l’Occident favorise le même en supprimant la différence, dans la mesure où la consanguinité, la frontière jouent un rôle fondamental tout au long de l’histoire occidentale, ce qui détermine la démocratie conditionnelle fondée sur la souveraineté de l’Etat-nation. Cette manière de partir de l’amitié existe également dans le Confucianisme en tant qu’essentiel de la culture sinologique traditionnelle. Car l’image de frère, à savoir la consanguinité persiste tout au long de l’histoire sinologique en tant qu’axe, dans la mesure où les structures du clan et de la famille monopolisent la politique féodale de la Chine. Ce qui nous permet de constater la similarité plutôt que la divergence entre les cultures. De plus, face à l’amitié fondée sur la consanguinité et la frontière, Derrida propose une nouvelle sorte d’amitié qui offre l’hospitalité inconditionnelle dans le but de supprimer l’auto-immunité politique en aboutissant à « la démocratie à venir », bien que son infini absolu provoque un écart entre l’idéologie et la pratique. Nous constatons en effet l’amour universel de Mo Tzu dans la culture sinologique traditionnelle correspondant à l’amitié de Derrida qui se détache de la consanguinité, par laquelle, la société « Da-Tong » qui implique la démocratie universelle se présente toujours comme la société idéale dans l’histoire de la Chine. Cela risque de provoquer aussi un écart entre l’idéologie et la politique pratique, dans la mesure où les deux cultures se croisent plutôt qu’elles ne divergent. Cette étude vise, par la mise en regard entre les cultures, à clarifier la transition de la politique à la morale, dans le but de traiter de « la démocratie à venir » et la société « Da-Tong » avec une attitude objective face à la critique de l’Utopie. Au cours de cette étude nous constaterons que la conversation entre les cultures devient de plus en plus importante sous le cosmopolitisme universel. / Following the trend of international cooperation, comparative research across cultures becomes increasingly important. Consequently Sinology and Western culture could intersect at certain points of view, particularly around Derrida’s political philosophy research based on the term friendship. Faced with political violence in the name of justice, democracy or human rights, Derrida states that the current policy is dominated by the disease of “autoimmunity”, by which democracy is locked to the within the territory of the State. So the universal democracy as the authenticity of democracy is not yet present. Considering that the reforms in the policy framework does not help to solve the “autoimmunity”, Derrida believes that we should return to the ideology by reflecting the term friendship as the root of human relations in society, in order to access the idea of the unconditional hospitality and therefore the universal democracy. This is why Derrida begins his research of political philosophy from the term friendship. In this sense, Derrida discusses the canonical friendship, namely the ancient friendship, Christian friendship and rationale friendship, in the western history, in concluding that the canonical friendship of the Western history favors the sameness by eliminating the difference, as far as the consanguinity, the frontier play a foundational rule throughout the Western history, which determines the conditional democracy based on the sovereignty of the nation-state. This way of beginning from the friendship exists also in Confucianism which acts as the essential of sinology, because of the image of brother, in other words the consanguinity persists throughout the sinological history as an axis, and in terms of structures of clan and family which monopolize the feudal politics of China. This allows us to note the similarities rather than the differences between the two cultures. In addition, face to the friendship based on consanguinity and the frontier, Derrida proposes a new way of friendship which contains the unconditional hospitality, in order to suppress the disease of autoimmunity, then lead to "democracy to come", even if it might causes a gap between ideology and political practice. Indeed, the “universal love” exists also in sinological history, for example in the theory of Mo Tzu. By which the society "Da-Tong" implying a universal democracy is always presented as the ideal society in the history of China. This may also make a gap between ideology and practical politics regarding the two cultures intersect instead of diverging. Face to the critiques concerning Utopia of "democracy to come" and the society "Da-Tong", this study aims at the confrontation between cultures, the transition between politics and ethics, in order to deal with these concepts with an objective attitude. In this process of comparative research we find that the conversation between cultures becomes increasingly important in universal cosmopolitanism.

[pt] Não mais servos, mas amigos (Jo 15,15): Uma abordagem teológica da amizade à luz do mistério de Cristo. Esta tese doutoral tem o objetivo de evidenciar a philia oferecida por Cristo aos seus amigos como um caminho seguro para o processo de renovação das relações humanas, sobretudo, nas comunidades cristãs. A partir de uma leitura teológico-litúrgica, a amizade estudada traduz o modelo da Aliança que Deus oferece a toda humanidade que busca uma experiência existencial do amor, retratada em seu teor histórico-salvífico e litúrgico-celebrativo. Para tal, essa tese tem o seu fundamento na Revelação Bíblica de Deus como o Amigo, que cria o ser humano para viver em sua amizade. Este, mesmo que a recuse, é amparado por Deus, que jamais o abandona ao poder da morte. Na Nova Aliança, o Cristo Ressuscitado permite que o amor, na sua expressão de amizade, seja relido para se tornar o arquétipo da nova relação entre Jesus e os seus discípulos, ao unir à philia o ato de doar a vida. A Liturgia, por sua vez, como fonte de vida, de oração e de amizade, reconduz os cristãos ao culmen et fons da autêntica espiritualidade da Igreja, pois os convida a uma participação plena no ato celebrativo que, na Eucaristia, realiza a sua máxima expressão comunitária, vivida no coração da Igreja. Neste contexto salvífico-celebrativo, o mistério de Cristo anseia por frutificar na vida de cada cristão, gerando uma nova compreensão da liturgia: um ato salvífico-celebrativo realizado entre amigos, no qual a presença do Ressuscitado é reconhecida e celebrada como Memorial e antecipação da Liturgia Celeste; o agir humano é divinizado, e sua ação consiste em gestos de amizade recíproca (Redenção) que favorecem a convivência na alegria da Aliança. Esta experiência pode representar uma contribuição relevante para a renovação da comunidade cristã, na qual a liturgia, ao se revelar como uma escola de amizade e hospitalidade, se faz relevante também nos novos espaços digitais, no intuito de incentivar os seus usuários a uma comunhão nas relações digitais e educá-los à conscientização do valor do encontro entre amigos de modo presencial. Tal realização eficaz ocorre por meio de uma assembleia litúrgica. Ao resgatar essa temática sob o prisma da Oração Eucarística IV do Missal Romano, a amizade cristã é relida como um processo, ao mesmo tempo, afetivo e real do mistério celebrado. Desta forma, conclui-se que, quando uma celebração litúrgica assume o seu autêntico caráter de serviço, no âmbito cristológico da amizade, acende-se uma centelha que é capaz de reanimar e infundir na comunidade a força sobrenatural de uma philia que permite a cada cristão reclinar-se no peito do Amigo. / [en] No longer servants, but friends (Jn 15:15): A theological approach to friendship in the light of the mystery of Christ. This doctoral thesis aims to highlight the philia offered by Christ to his friends as a sure path for the process of renewal of human relationships, above all, in Christian communities. From a theological liturgical reading, the friendship that was studied translates the model of the Covenant that God offers to all humanity that seeks an existential experience of love, portrayed in its historical-salvific and liturgical-celebrative content. For such, this thesis has its foundation in the Biblical Revelation of God as the Friend, who creates the human being to live in his friendship. The latter, even if he refuses it, is supported by God, who never abandons him to the power of death. In the New Covenant, the Risen Christ allows love, in its expression of friendship, to be reread to become the archetype of the new relationship between Jesus and his disciples, by uniting the act of giving life to the philia. The Liturgy, in turn, as a source of life, prayer and friendship, brings Christians back to the culmen et fons of the authentic spirituality of the Church, as it invites them to participate fully in the celebratory act which, in the Eucharist, fulfills its maximum community expression, lived in the heart of the Church. In this salvific-celebrative context, the mystery of Christ yearns to bear fruit in the life of every Christian, generating a new understanding of the liturgy: a salvific-celebrative act performed among friends, in which the presence of the Risen is recognized and celebrated as a memorial and anticipation of the Celestial Liturgy; human action is deified, and its action consists of gestures of mutual friendship (Redemption) that favor coexistence in the joy of the Covenant. This experience can represent a relevant contribution to the renewal of the Christian community, in which the liturgy, by revealing itself as a school of friendship and hospitality, is also relevant in new digital spaces, in order to encourage its users to a communion in digital relationships and educate them to raise awareness of the value of meeting friends in person. Such effective realization takes place through a liturgical assembly. When rescuing this theme under the prism of Eucharistic Prayer IV of the Roman Missal, Christian friendship is reread as a process, at the same time, affective and real of the celebrated mystery. In this way, it is concluded that, when a liturgical celebration assumes its authentic character of service, in the Christological context of friendship, a spark is lit that is capable of reanimating and infusing in the community the supernatural strength of a philia that allows each Christian to lean on the Friend s chest.

[pt] A amizade é um fenômeno universal e próprio da condição humana que nasce da livre oferta de si mesmo para lançar-se ao mistério do outro. Por meio dela, os homens tornam-se capazes de encontrar um caminho para a sua humanização. Este trabalho, sob a perspectiva da teologia patrística, retrata a amizade de Gregório de Nazianzo e Basílio de Cesaréia, como um modelo para todo o cristão que busca uma experiência existencial do amor, revestida da Aliança que Deus faz com a humanidade. Para tal, investigou-se sistematicamente a temática da philia cristã, à luz desses dois padres capadócios que fizeram uma grande síntese do pensamento clássico e cristão no século IV. Essa dissertação se fundamenta na Oração 43 de Gregório de Nazianzo, especificamente nos parágrafos 14 a 24, que retrata duas personalidades tão distintas, movidas pela busca da expressão mais sensível do amor de Deus, capazes de viver uma comunhão universal e indivisível, tornadas como uma alma em dois corpos a ponto de ser imperceptível a costura que as uniu. Objetiva-se, portanto, demonstrar a relevância da amizade cristã na Oração 43,14-24 como importante instrumento no processo de humanização e de renovação das relações fraternas. / [en] Friendship is a universal and proper phenomenon of the human condition that is born of the free offer of oneself to launch itself into the mystery of the other. Through it men become capable of finding a way for their humanization. This work, from the perspective of patristic theology, portrays the friendship of Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil of Caesarea as a model for every Christian who seeks an existential experience of love, clothed in the Alliance God makes with humanity. For this, we systematically investigated the theme of Christian philia in the light of these two Cappadocian priests who made a great synthesis of classical and Christian thought in the fourth century. This dissertation is based on St. Gregory of Nazianzus Prayer 43, specifically in paragraphs 14 to 24, which portrays two very different personalities who, motivated by the search for the most sensitive expression of God s love, were able to live a universal and indivisible communion, and allowed to become like a soul in two bodies to the point of rendering imperceptible the seam that united them. This dissertation aims to demonstrate the relevance of Christian friendship through Prayer 43,14-24 as an important tool in the process of humanization and renewal of fraternal relationships.

La notoriété dont jouit l’apport de Gadamer à la tradition de l’herméneutique philosophique tend à éclipser la finesse et la complexité de ses réflexions dans le domaine de la philosophie pratique. Or, Gadamer souligne lui-même que, dès le début de sa carrière, sa principale préoccupation a été celle de comprendre à partir des Grecs ce que sont la praxis et la philosophie pratique qui l’étudie. C’est cette préoccupation qui l’a conduit à développer par la suite ses réflexions sur l’herméneutique – discipline qu’il comprend comme une philosophie pratique. Dans ses écrits éthico-politiques, Gadamer porte une attention particulière à la philosophie grecque, pour laquelle son intérêt est si puissant que, dès ses premiers écrits, il aspirait à en revitaliser certains éléments liés à l’exercice de la dialectique et représentés par le mode de vie dialogique de Socrate. La philía est l’un de ces concepts grecs que Gadamer vise à ranimer dans les esprits contemporains puisque, selon lui, la philía révèle des vérités sur l’existence humaine que les conceptions subjectivistes dominantes dans la modernité ne réussissent pas à expliquer. Contrairement à l’idée selon laquelle l’être humain serait fondamentalement un être individuel et seulement de manière secondaire un être social, l’appropriation gadamérienne de la philía met en évidence la nature sociale de l’être humain, c’est-à-dire son appartenance essentielle à la sphère sociale – dont les dimensions les plus fondamentales sont celles de la solidarité et l’amitié, selon Gadamer. Ce mémoire vise à montrer comment, en associant la notion grecque de philía aux phénomènes de l’amitié et de la solidarité, Gadamer comprend ces dernières comme reposant essentiellement sur le dialogue et la coexistence entre les êtres humains (par lesquels il leur est possible d’identifier le bien commun). Selon Gadamer, autant l’amitié que la solidarité consistent en l’orientation de l’agir de l’individu vers le bien des communautés auxquelles il appartient en vertu d’une reconnaissance du lien d’interdépendance qui l’unit à celles-ci. Dans la sphère de l’amitié, l’essence sociale des êtres humains se manifeste dans le partage de la tâche d’auto- connaissance qui est la leur : le dialogue et la coexistence des amis leur permettent de mieux se connaître qu’ils ne le feraient individuellement. Dans la sphère de la solidarité, l’essence sociale des êtres humains se manifeste dans le partage des tâches – comme la communication et la division du travail – qui rendent possible l’existence même de l’humanité. / The reputation of Gadamer’s contributions to the tradition of philosophical hermeneutics tends to eclipse the finesse and complexity of his reflections on practical philosophy. Gadamer himself states that, since the beginning of his career, his main concern has been understanding praxis and the practical philosophy that studies it. Gadamer’s ethical-political writings are heavily focused on Greek philosophy, his lifelong interest in which is evidenced in his attempts to revitalise certain elements related to the exercise of dialectics as represented by the dialogical life led by Socrates. The Greek notion of philía is one such concept that Gadamer aimed to revive in the minds of his contemporaries; he understood philia as revealing certain truths about human existence that the subjectivist conceptions dominating modern thought fail to grasp and explain. Unlike the idea that humans are fundamentally individual beings and only secondarily social, Gadamer’s appropriation of philia accentuates the social nature of human beings – that is, their essential belonging to the social sphere – whose most fundamental dimensions are those of solidarity and friendship. This thesis aims to highlight the ways in which Gadamer’s association of the Greek notion philia to the phenomena of friendship and solidarity leads him to characterise these phenomena as fundamentally relying on the dialogue and coexistence between human beings (through which they are capable of identifying the common good). Gadamer maintains that both friendship and solidarity entail individuals orienting their actions toward the well-being of the communities to which they belong in accordance with their recognition of the interdependence that unites them. In Gadamer’s conception of philia as friendship, the social nature of human beings manifests in the way they share the task of self-knowledge (a task obligatory to every human being): the dialogue and coexistence between friends is what allows humans to understand themselves better than they would individually. In Gadamer’s conception of philia as solidarity, the social essence of human beings manifests in the shared tasks that make the very existence of humanity possible – such as the task of communication and the division of labour.

In this thesis I compare Pierre Leroux, a French utopian socialist (1797 – 1871), with Feodor Dostoevsky, the well-known Orthodox Russian novelist (1821 – 1881). I argue that both authors reacted against what they considered to be the dissolution of the social order, brought about by the increasing nineteenth-century bourgeois individualism. On the other hand, they reacted as well against the opposite phenomenon, the idea of a universal socialist state, which was, in fact, according to them, the outcome of bourgeois individualism. My purpose is to bring close and to compare Leroux’s republican socialism with Dostoevsky’s Christian socialism, and to explore to what extent the two authors give similar answers to a common problem. In order to better explain their thought, I divide my thesis into three chapters. The first analyzes and compares Leroux’s and Dostoevsky’s critiques of individualism. If Leroux reaches the conclusion that the ultimate expression of individualism is Malthusianism, Dostoevsky argues that individualism ends in nihilism. The second chapter analyzes the type of socialism against which Leroux and Dostoevsky reacted, as well as the critiques of the two authors. I argue here that Saint-Simonian socialism – the main object of Leroux’s critique – and the socialism of the Grand Inquisitor – a Dostoevskyan character – are the expression of a certain utopian thought which considers the requirement for freedom incompatible with the requirement for unity. In the last chapter, I analyze the ideas of community of Leroux and of Dostoevsky, which are centered on philia, in the case of the former, and on agape, in the case of the latter. Philia and respectively agape are the expression of organic social relations, through which the two requirements, of freedom and unity, are made compatible, and which create unity in multiplicity. Their ideas of community appear as active utopias, grounded on the life of relation in a spontaneous, organic community.

Theories of socio-cultural change regarding the transition from the Chalcolithic to the Bronze Age in Cyprus have since the nascence of prehistoric archaeology on the island been the subject of lively debate between archaeologists who argue for internal versus external evolution processes. Yet, despite all efforts, a coherent model explaining the evident material culture differences between the two epochs remains elusive, an indication that the current polarization of theories masks inherent complexities of the archaeological record. Moving beyond the internal/external dichotomy, the present thesis argues for one such explanatory model and approaches this notable transition from three distinct and less explored aspects, namely chronology, pottery analysis and topography. Starting with chronology, the thesis assesses previous chronological schemata, examines issues of methodology, performs an in-depth data quality analysis, and, on the basis of the creative dialogue between absolute and relative dating data, proposes a novel chronology for the island. This chronology transcends linearity by adopting cultural period overlaps and differential regional adoption of technologies. Moving to spatial matters, the study disentangles space-time systematics for sites dating from the Middle Chalcolithic to the Philia Phase. In effect, it establishes a ceramic typology for the Chalcolithic that is applicable to the entire island; clarifies and records in a custom-made recording system, dubbed CARMA (Cyprus ARchaeological MAterials Relational Database System), the research history and material assemblages of each site; situates sites in the physical landscape of Cyprus and performs socio-spatial analyses, where the results of pottery analysis are interwoven with the spatial relationships between sites. The last analysis provides positive evidence for cultural uniformity in the Middle Chalcolithic, for the emergence of regional cultures in the Late Chalcolithic and the abandonment of settlements at the beginning of the Philia Phase, and for the co-existence of spatially distinct cultures during the Philia Phase. Lastly, the results of the chronology and spatial studies inform the data synthesis in the final section, where a different narrative of socio-cultural change is developed. This argues for the emergence of divergences already in the Late Chalcolithic, for the co-existence and uneven bi-directional interaction of indigenous and foreign populations during the Philia Phase, and for the development of regionalism in the Early Bronze Age as a result of variable adoption of technologies, entanglement and resistance to cultural identity assimilation.

In this thesis I compare Pierre Leroux, a French utopian socialist (1797 – 1871), with Feodor Dostoevsky, the well-known Orthodox Russian novelist (1821 – 1881). I argue that both authors reacted against what they considered to be the dissolution of the social order, brought about by the increasing nineteenth-century bourgeois individualism. On the other hand, they reacted as well against the opposite phenomenon, the idea of a universal socialist state, which was, in fact, according to them, the outcome of bourgeois individualism. My purpose is to bring close and to compare Leroux’s republican socialism with Dostoevsky’s Christian socialism, and to explore to what extent the two authors give similar answers to a common problem. In order to better explain their thought, I divide my thesis into three chapters. The first analyzes and compares Leroux’s and Dostoevsky’s critiques of individualism. If Leroux reaches the conclusion that the ultimate expression of individualism is Malthusianism, Dostoevsky argues that individualism ends in nihilism. The second chapter analyzes the type of socialism against which Leroux and Dostoevsky reacted, as well as the critiques of the two authors. I argue here that Saint-Simonian socialism – the main object of Leroux’s critique – and the socialism of the Grand Inquisitor – a Dostoevskyan character – are the expression of a certain utopian thought which considers the requirement for freedom incompatible with the requirement for unity. In the last chapter, I analyze the ideas of community of Leroux and of Dostoevsky, which are centered on philia, in the case of the former, and on agape, in the case of the latter. Philia and respectively agape are the expression of organic social relations, through which the two requirements, of freedom and unity, are made compatible, and which create unity in multiplicity. Their ideas of community appear as active utopias, grounded on the life of relation in a spontaneous, organic community.