Este trabalho aborda um tipo de passarela que está ganhando bastante notoriedade internacionalmente. Inúmeras obras vêm sendo construídas em diversos países, embora no Brasil ainda seja quase desconhecida. Basicamente, a estrutura é composta por cabos livremente suspensos, sobre os quais se apóia o tabuleiro formado por elementos pré-moldados de concreto. A protensão é utilizada como forma de enrijecer o conjunto. Dentre suas principais características, estão a rapidez e a facilidade de execução, a estética bastante agradável e o custo competitivo. Inicialmente, apresenta-se uma conceituação básica e um estado da arte. Em seguida, é estudado o comportamento estrutural da passarela. Alguns tópicos relativos à análise dinâmica e às fundações são brevemente comentados. Finalizando a dissertação, é feita uma aplicação numérica, enfatizando os aspectos que a diferenciam das estruturas convencionais / This work treats a kind of pedestrian bridge that is standing out internationally. Several structures have been built in different countries, although they are almost unknown in Brazil. Basically, the deck is formed by precast concrete elements over free suspended cables. Prestressing is applied behind the abutments to provide rigidity to the structure. Quick and easy to assemble, aesthetically beautiful and the competitive cost are some of their main features. First, the basic concepts and a state of art are presented. Then, the structural behavior is studied. Some questions related to dynamic analysis and foundations are briefly commented. Ending the dissertation, an example is done, with emphasis to the aspects that make the stress-ribbon a non-conventional structure

Thesis. 1975. M.S.--Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dept. of Civil Engineering. / Bibliography: leaves 124-129. / M.S.

Apresenta-se neste trabalho uma metodologia consistente e eficiente para análise de estruturas de concreto sob o efeito do tempo. A metodologia exposta é baseada no Método dos Elementos Finitos (MEF). É mostrado como se analisar estruturas de concreto através do MEF, considerando na equação constitutiva dos elementos, os fenômenos viscoelásticos. A solução para este problema, denominado análise incremental quase-estática, pode ser obtida determinando os campos de tensões, deslocamentos e deformações num dado instante a partir de seus valores conhecidos no instante anterior. Aqui, efetua-se a análise incremental através de um Algoritmo de Integração de Tensões (AIT) com a ajuda de uma rotina computacional baseada no MEF. A Função de Fluência utilizada neste trabalho, além de ser muito eficiente segundo uma metodologia através do MEF, permite facilmente o seu ajuste a quaisquer dados experimentais, ou mesmo aproximar qualquer função de fluência de normas ou códigos. Outra característica crucial é que a integração das tensões não exige o armazenamento computacional de todas as variáveis dependentes do histórico de tensão em um determinado instante, facilitando significantemente a análise ou a retro-análise de estruturas de concreto. Vale ressaltar que ao longo do texto são feitas algumas discussões e comparações do emprego da Função de Fluência proposta com a função da NBR-6118:2003. Também é apresentada uma outra consistente metodologia para a análise de um elemento finito de cabo com escorregamento, onde são discutidas uma formulação geometricamente exata e a implementação computacional de um elemento finito de cabo através do MEF, que permite o escorregamento em presença de atrito. Este elemento fornece procedimentos naturais para simular o processo de montagem e a resposta aos carregamentos de estruturas de cabos em geral, além de ter campos promissores de aplicação no modelamento de estruturas de concreto protendido, das tenso-estruturas e das estruturas de pontes. Também, ao longo do texto são discutidos e apresentados resultados de exemplos elementares com a finalidade de verificar a eficiência da metodologia abordada. / In this work, an efficient and accurate methodology to analyze the effects of time in concrete structures is presented. This methodology is based on the Finite Elements Method (FEM), and it is shown how to perform the finite element analysis on concrete framed structures taking into account the viscoelasticity phenomenon in the formulation of the constitutive equation. The solution for such problem, called quasi-static incremental analysis, may be resolved by establishing the stresses, displacements and deformations fields at specific time from their known values on the previous moment. In this work, the incremental analysis is performed by using an algorithm of stresses integration written into a computational procedure based on the FEM. The Creep Function used in this work, besides being very efficient according to the methodology based on the MEF, it may be, easily, adjusted to any real experiment data or to any creep function presented on codes. Another important characteristic is that such creep function does not demand the computational storage of all the history of stresses variables in a specified time, resulting in an effortless analysis and back-analysis of concrete framed structures. Needless to write that some discussions and judgments against the creep function presented on the NBR-6118:2003 will be performed in order to justify the efficiency of the creep function proposed. Another consistent methodology for the analysis of a fully nonlinear sliding cable element with friction is also presented. It is discussed an accurate geometrically nonlinear formulation and the computational implementation of cable elements based on FEM that incorporates sliding with friction in a simple manner. The cable element may furnish natural procedures to simulate the process of construction assembly, and the results of time-dependent loads on such structures. Furthermore, the presented methodology has promising fields of application in modeling pre-stressed concrete, tensioned cables structures, membranes, stayed and suspended bridges. Along the text, it is presented some examples analysis in order to verify the methodology efficiency.

This thesis addresses the experimental and numerical study of vibration-based damage detection (VBDD) techniques in structural health monitoring (SHM) of bridge superstructures. The primary goal of SHM is to ascertain the condition or health of a structure so that decisions can be made with regard to the need for remediation. VBDD techniques are global non-destructive evaluation (NDE) techniques. The principle of VBDD techniques is to detect damage using changes in the dynamic characteristics of a structure caused by the damage. The advantage of VBDD techniques over local NDE techniques is that VBDD techniques can assess the condition of an entire structure at once and are not limited to accessible components. <p>Well controlled laboratory experiments on a half-scale, simply supported steel-free bridge deck and two full-scale, simply supported prestressed concrete girders demonstrated that small scale damage at different locations can be reliably detected and located by VBDD techniques using a relatively small number of sensors (accelerometers or strain gauges) and considering changes to only the fundamental mode of vibration. The resolution of damage localization, defined as the length of the window within which damage could be located when the technique predicts it to be located at a particular point, was 70% of measurement point spacing for the deck and 82% for the girders, provided the damage was not located too close to a simple support.<p>To establish the potential of VBDD techniques in the absence of experimental uncertainty, eigenvalue analyses using finite element models of the deck and the girders were undertaken to investigate ability of five VBDD methods to predict the longitudinal location of damage. It was found that when mode shapes were well-defined with a large number of measurement points, the damage location could be determined with great accuracy using any of the five VBDD techniques investigated. The resolution of longitudinal localization of damage was 40 to 80% of the spacing between measurement points when small numbers of measurement points were used, provided the damage was not located too close to a simple support.<p>The experimental study successfully detected small scale damage under forced resonant harmonic excitation but failed in detecting damage under forced random excitation, although the use of random sources of excitation is more practical in field testing. Transient dynamic analyses on the finite element model of the steel-free bridge deck were performed to investigate the implications of using random forced vibrations to characterize mode shapes to be used to detect damage. It was found that the probability of successful damage localization depends upon the severity of the damage, the number of trials used to obtain the average mode shape, the location of damage relative to the nearest sensor, the distance between the damage and the support, and the magnitude of measurement errors. A method based on the repeatability of measured mode shapes is proposed to calculate the probability of successful damage detection and localization.<p>In summary, results of this research demonstrate that VBDD techniques are a promising tool for structural health monitoring of bridge superstructures. However, although these methods have been shown to be capable of effectively detecting small scale damage under well controlled conditions, a significant amount of challenging work remains to be done before they can be applied to real structures.

This thesis addresses the experimental and numerical study of vibration-based damage detection (VBDD) techniques in structural health monitoring (SHM) of bridge superstructures. The primary goal of SHM is to ascertain the condition or health of a structure so that decisions can be made with regard to the need for remediation. VBDD techniques are global non-destructive evaluation (NDE) techniques. The principle of VBDD techniques is to detect damage using changes in the dynamic characteristics of a structure caused by the damage. The advantage of VBDD techniques over local NDE techniques is that VBDD techniques can assess the condition of an entire structure at once and are not limited to accessible components. <p>Well controlled laboratory experiments on a half-scale, simply supported steel-free bridge deck and two full-scale, simply supported prestressed concrete girders demonstrated that small scale damage at different locations can be reliably detected and located by VBDD techniques using a relatively small number of sensors (accelerometers or strain gauges) and considering changes to only the fundamental mode of vibration. The resolution of damage localization, defined as the length of the window within which damage could be located when the technique predicts it to be located at a particular point, was 70% of measurement point spacing for the deck and 82% for the girders, provided the damage was not located too close to a simple support.<p>To establish the potential of VBDD techniques in the absence of experimental uncertainty, eigenvalue analyses using finite element models of the deck and the girders were undertaken to investigate ability of five VBDD methods to predict the longitudinal location of damage. It was found that when mode shapes were well-defined with a large number of measurement points, the damage location could be determined with great accuracy using any of the five VBDD techniques investigated. The resolution of longitudinal localization of damage was 40 to 80% of the spacing between measurement points when small numbers of measurement points were used, provided the damage was not located too close to a simple support.<p>The experimental study successfully detected small scale damage under forced resonant harmonic excitation but failed in detecting damage under forced random excitation, although the use of random sources of excitation is more practical in field testing. Transient dynamic analyses on the finite element model of the steel-free bridge deck were performed to investigate the implications of using random forced vibrations to characterize mode shapes to be used to detect damage. It was found that the probability of successful damage localization depends upon the severity of the damage, the number of trials used to obtain the average mode shape, the location of damage relative to the nearest sensor, the distance between the damage and the support, and the magnitude of measurement errors. A method based on the repeatability of measured mode shapes is proposed to calculate the probability of successful damage detection and localization.<p>In summary, results of this research demonstrate that VBDD techniques are a promising tool for structural health monitoring of bridge superstructures. However, although these methods have been shown to be capable of effectively detecting small scale damage under well controlled conditions, a significant amount of challenging work remains to be done before they can be applied to real structures.

The spans of precast prestressed concrete bridge girders have become longer to provide more economical and safer transportation structures. As the spans have increased, so has the depth of the girders which in turn have increased the slenderness of the girders. Slenderness in a beam or girder would increase the likelihood that a stability failure would occur. Stability failures could pose a danger to construction personnel due to the sudden nature in which a stability failure would occur. Furthermore, stability failures of prestressed concrete girders during construction would cause a detrimental economic impact due to the costs associated with the failure of the girder, the ensuing construction delays, damage to construction equipment and potential closures to highways over which the bridge was being constructed. An experimental and analytical study was performed to determine the stability behavior of prestressed concrete beams. Two stability phenomenons were investigated: (1) lateral-torsional buckling and (2) global stability. An emphasis was placed on the effects of initial imperfections on the stability behavior; the effect elastomeric bearing pads and support rotational stiffness was investigated. The experimental study involved testing six rectangular prestressed concrete beams for lateral-torsional buckling, a PCI BT-54 for thermal deformations and the same PCI BT-54 for global stability. The 32-ft. long rectangular beams were 4-in. wide and 40-in. deep. The PCI BT-54 had a 100-ft. long span. A material and geometric nonlinear, incremental load analysis was performed on the six rectangular beams. The nonlinear analyses matched the experimental load versus lateral displacement and load versus rotation behavior, and the analysis predicted the experimental maximum load within an error of 2%. The nonlinear analysis was extrapolated to several different initial imperfection conditions to parametrically study the effect of initial lateral displacement and initial rotation on the inelastic lateral-torsional buckling load. A simplified expression for lateral-torsional stability of beams with initial imperfections was developed. The data from the parametric study were used to develop reduction parameters for both initial sweep and initial rotation. The rollover stability behavior of the PCI BT-54 was investigated experimentally, and it was found that support end rotations and the elastomeric bearing pads had an adverse effect on the global stability. The nonlinear analysis was employed with the addition of a bearing pad model. It was found that the behavior was sensitive to the bearing pad stiffness properties and the assumption of uniform bearing. From the research, it was apparent that rollover stability was the controlling stability phenomenon for precast prestressed concrete bridge girders, not lateral-torsional buckling.

Precast, prestressed concrete panels (PCPs) have been widely used in Texas as stay-in-place formwork in bridge deck construction. Although PCPs are widely popular and extensively used, Texas is experiencing problems with collinear cracks (cracks along the strands) in panels. One reason for the formation of collinear cracks is thought to be the required level of initial prestress. Currently, PCPs are designed assuming a 45-ksi, lump-sum prestress loss. If the prestress losses are demonstrated to be lower than this value, this could justify the use of a lower initial prestress, probably resulting in fewer collinear cracks. For this purpose, 20 precast, prestressed panels were cast at two different plants. Half of those 20 panels were fabricated with the current TxDOT-required prestress of 16.1 kips per strand, and the other half were fabricated with a lower prestress of 14.4 kips per strand based on initially observed prestress losses of 25 ksi or less. Thirteen of those panels were instrumented with strain gages and monitored over their life time. Observed losses stabilized after five months, and are found to be about 24.4 ksi. Even with the reduced initial prestress, the remaining prestress in all panels exceeds the value now assumed by TxDOT for design. / text

Fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs) are becoming increasingly accepted in structural engineering applications. In particular, Carbon-FRP (CFRP) tendons are proving to be promising as prestressing reinforcement for concrete structures. While several studies have been conducted on CFRP-prestressed concrete beams, very little attention has been given to their long-term behaviour at low temperatures. This thesis investigates the behaviour of CFRP prestressed concrete beams in two studies: (a) under sustained loading at low temperature, and (b) under high-cycle fatigue at low temperature. Seven 13 year old, 4.4 m long precast concrete T beams were tested, of which five were prestressed to various levels with CFRP tendons and two with conventional steel strands. In the first study, three beams were exposed to −27 °C while being subjected to a sustained load of 25% of their flexural capacity for 163 days. The sustained load produced cracking in two beams with lower prestress levels. Results were compared to those obtained from three similar beams subjected to the same sustained load at room temperature. Deflection increase under sustained load at low temperature was generally small and similar to that at room temperature. Prestressing strain had a direct relationship with temperature in the CFRP prestressed beams. After being subjected to sustained loading, all seven beams were tested in the second study. Only three of the five CFRP prestressed beams were subjected to cyclic loading, one at −28 °C and two at room temperature, while only one of the two steel prestressed beams was subjected to cyclic loading, at −28 °C. Cyclic loading consisted of 3 million cycles at a frequency of 0.85 Hz. The load range represented 21 to 42% of the flexural capacity of the CFRP prestressed beams and 30 to 60% of that of the steel-prestressed beam. Monotonic tests were run every 1 million cycles. Finally, all seven beams were monotonically loaded to failure. All CFRP prestressed beams survived the 3 million cycles but the steel prestressed beam failed after 185,000 cycles. However, the CFRP concrete bond was weakened by high prestress levels, cyclic loading, and low temperature during sustained loading and loading to failure. This resulted in bond failure at loads ranging from 69 to 91% of the full flexural capacity. Stiffness and camber gradually decreased during cyclic loading. / Thesis (Master, Civil Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2009-12-21 15:16:33.381

[pt] A busca por uma estrutura ótima, que consuma o mínimo de material possível, e atenda, ao mesmo tempo, aos critérios de segurança e bom comportamento em serviço e aos aspectos construtivos, deve ser preocupação primordial de todo engenheiro de projeto. Daí a grande importância da área da engenharia que trata de otimização de estruturas, que visa estudar ferramentas que auxiliem o engenheiro na obtenção do projeto ótimo.Este trabalho tem como objetivo apresentar uma metodologia para a determinação do traçado ótimo de cabos aderentes de protensão, considerando- se condições do estado limite último de flexão, além daquelas usuais referentes aos estados limites de utilização.A solução de problema é obtida via técnicas de otimização, trabalhando com o algoritmo de Han-Powell, de programação não-linear.As variáveis de projeto são a força de protensão, os coeficientes das parábolas que descrevem o cabo protendido e os parâmetros da configuração deformada em cada seção de estudo da viga.O problema de otimização estrutural proposto é minimizar a força de protensão em vigas isostáticas e hiperestáticas, submetido a restrições geométricas, limitações das tensões nos bordos extremos da viga no estado limite de utilização, e verificação do estado limite último em seções previamente definidas.O desenvolvimento de um programa de computador permitiu a implementação deste problema e a geração, como resultado, do traçado ótimo de um cabo médio, e da força de protensão mínima, após as perdas imediatas, consideradas constantes ao longo do comprimento da viga. / [en] The search for the optimum design, with the minimum possible material consumption and satisfying, at the same time, safety and in service conditions and also the constructive aspects, must be a central preoccupation of all engineers.Therefore the optimization of structures is such an important engineering area, which studies tools for helping the engineering to obtain the optimum design. The objective of this work is to present on methodology for the determination of the optimum design of prestressed cable, considering both the ultimate limit state and the in service limit state.The solution of the problem is obtained through optimization techniques, normally,the Han-Powell algorithm is applied for solving the non-linear programming problem.The design variables are the prestressed force and the parameters, which define the geometry of the cable and the deformation of the beam in given sections.The proposed optimization problem is to minimize the prestressed force in beams while constraining the geometry of the cable and the stresses during in service loads and satisfying safety in the ultimate limit state in prescribed sections. A computer program, based on the formulation, was developed which allowed the user to obtain the optimum design of the cable and the correspondent minimum prestressed force, after immediate losses which are considered constant along the beam length.

This work presents some aspects related to geometry and rigidity classification and structural analysis of reinforced and prestressed concrete mat foundations. Some strategies for modeling and solving the structural system are discussed, with focus on grid analogy with elastic restraints and soil-structure interaction. Details of the computer aided design of mat foundations by grid analogy performed at CAD/TQS system are also presented. The material list and cost are investigated and compared for three real buildings considering two prestressed cable geometry: straight and parabolic. The results show that the prestressed concrete mat foundation gives thinner thickness and greater total cost. The former is due to increasing in concrete resistance and the last is due to additional rebars and multistrand cost. The prestressing cost was not considered. / Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Alagoas / Neste trabalho são apresentados aspectos relacionados à classificação quanto a geometria e a rigidez bem como, à análise estrutural de fundações tipo radier em concreto armado e em concreto protendido. Algumas estratégias de modelagem e solução do sistema estrutural são discutidas, com foco no procedimento de analogia de grelha sobre base elástica, considerando-se a interação solo-estrutura. São apresentados os procedimentos para a análise automatizada de radier por analogia de grelha empregando o sistema CAD/TQS. Em um estudo de caso, três exemplos reais com emprego de cabo reto centrado na placa e parabólico foram comparados caso fosse adotado radier em concreto armado, tendo como parâmetros de comparação o consumo e o custo de materiais. Os resultados desses estudos de caso mostraram que o radier em concreto protendido permitiu uma redução na espessura da laje, porém para os casos estudados apresentou um custo total maior, devido ao emprego de concreto com maior resistência à compressão, necessidade de armadura passiva por ser elemento fletido, ancoragens e custo das cordoalhas, respectivamente. Não foram considerados os custos operacionais de aplicação da protensão.