The self has been identified as the ?psychological apparatus that allows individuals to think consciously about themselves? (Leary & Price Tangney, 2003, p. 8). Further, the self has been identified as a worthwhile construct of investigation in relation to health behaviour (Contrada & Ashmore, 1999). Two self-related variables that have been useful in the study of health behaviour are <em>identity</em> (e. g. Anderson, Cychosz, & Franke, 1998; Petosa, Suminski & Hortz, 2003; Storer, Cychosz, & Anderson, 1997) and <em>self-efficacy</em> (Maddux, Brawley & Boykin, 1995). Identity Theory posits that individuals regulate their behaviour in a manner that is consistent with their goal identity (Gecas & Burke, 2003). Social Cognitive Theory provides a means of measuring social cognitions that may be important in behavioural regulation relative to identity. Further, self-efficacy beliefs may influence individuals? persistence at aligning their identity and behaviour. Research to date has investigated the link between identity and exercise (e. g. Anderson, Cychosz & Franke, 1998; Petosa, et al. , 2003). Further, researchers are beginning to investigate the link between identity and other health behaviours (e. g. Armitage & Conner, 1999; Kendzierski and Costello, 2004; Storer, Cychosz, & Andersen, 1997). However, research has not utilized the predictive frameworks offered by Identity Theory and Social Cognitive Theory to investigate the relationships between identity, behaviour and behavioural regulation. <br /><br /> Study One investigated the role of identity and self-efficacy beliefs in the maintenance of vigorous physical activity. Results were consistent with both Identity Theory and Social Cognitive Theory. Individuals who strongly identified with the runner identity expressed stronger task and self-regulatory efficacy beliefs. They also exercised more frequently and for longer durations than did those who only moderately identified with running. <br /><br /> Study Two further explored the relationship between exercise identity, exercise behaviour and the self-regulatory processes involved in behavioural regulation. Identity Theory and Social Cognitive Theory were used as guiding frameworks for this investigation. High and moderate exercise identity groups were compared in term of their affective and cognitive reactions to a hypothetical behavioural challenge to exercise identity. Consistent with Identity Theory, results indicated that participants appeared to be regulating their behaviour in a manner that was consistent with their exercise identity. Specifically, in response to the behavioural challenge to identity, high exercise identity participants, in contrast to their moderate counterparts, showed (a) less positive and (b) greater negative affect about the challenge, (c) higher self-regulatory efficacy for future exercise under the same challenging conditions, (d) stronger intentions for this future exercise, as well as for (e) using self-regulatory strategies to manage the challenging conditions and (f) intending to exercise more frequently under those conditions. <br /><br /> Study Three investigated whether identity with <em>healthy eating</em> could also be useful in understanding behaviour and behavioural regulation. Similar to Study Two, extreme healthy-eater identity groups? reactions to a hypothetical behavioural challenge to identity were compared. Results were similar to Study Two. Participants responded in a manner that suggested that they would regulate their future behaviour relative to their healthy-eater identity. In response to the behavioural challenge to identity, individuals who highly identified as healthy-eaters expressed less (a) positive affect, greater (b) negative affect, (c) self-regulatory efficacy for managing their healthy eating in the future challenging weeks, (d) intentions to eat a healthy diet, (e) generated more self-regulatory strategies and had (f) stronger intentions to use those strategies in future weeks under the same challenging conditions than did individuals who moderately identified themselves as healthy-eaters. Further, prospective relationships between healthy-eater identity and social cognitive variables, and healthy eating outcomes were examined. As was found in Study One in the context of exercise, healthy-eater identity and social cognitions predicted healthy eating outcomes. <br /><br /> Taken together, the three studies suggest that identity may be important in understanding health behaviours and the regulation of these behaviours. Also, the present findings support the compatible use of Identity Theory and Social Cognitive Theory in the investigation of identity and health behaviour.

In order to stay competitive in an economic landscape characterised by constant turmoil and change, organisations in the chemical industry are engaging in various adaptive strategies like mergers, acquisitions and diversification. Adaptation strategies may vary but they all have similar results in common, one of which is the exposure of employees to feelings of uncertainty and job insecurity. Identifying factors that enable employees to effectively deal with job insecurity is becoming an increasingly important topic for research. The primary objectives of this research were to investigate the relationship between job insecurity, general health and organisational citizenship behaviour of employees in a chemical industry, as well as to determine whether self-efficacy mediates the relationship between job insecurity and general health on the one hand and between job insecurity and organisational citizenship behaviour on the other hand. The research method consists of a literature review and an empirical study. A cross-sectional survey design was used to collect the data. An availability sample (N = 205) was taken from employees in a chemical industry. The Job Insecurity Questionnaire (JIQ), General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Scale (OCB), General Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale (GPSES) and a biographical questionnaire were administered. The statistical analysis was carried out with the SPSS program. Principal component factor analysis confirmed a two factor structure for job insecurity consisting of affective job insecurity and cognitive job insecurity. Factor analysis resulted in three factors for general health, namely psychosomatic symptoms, severe depression and social dysfunction. The two factors of the OCB were confIrmed and were labeled altruism and compliance. The unidimensional structure of the GPSES could also be confirmed and was labeled self-efficacy. All scales indicated acceptable reliability with Cronbach alpha coefficients varying from 0,70 to 0,89. Spearman product-moment correlations indicated a statistically positive correlation (practically significant, medium effect) between cognitive job insecurity and affective job insecurity. Results further indicated that an increase in psychosomatic symptoms will lead to an increase in severe depression and social dysfunction, while an increase in severe depression will be associated with an increase in social dysfunction. It was found that when altruism increased, self-efficacy will also increase. The hypothesised mediating effect of self-efficacy was only partially demonstrated for the relationship between affective job insecurity and general health, as demonstrated by severe depression. Self-efficacy was further shown to mediate the relationship between cognitive job insecurity and altruism. The relationship between cognitive job insecurity and affective job insecurity as dependent variables and compliance as an independent variable were partially mediated by self-efficacy. MANOVA analysis indicated that female employees experienced higher levels of cognitive job insecurity than male employees. White employees and employees with a degree exhibited more organisational citizenship behaviour, as demonstrated by compliance. Results further indicated that African employees and employees with a qualification of up to Grade 11 experienced higher levels of severe depression. Recommendations for future research were made, as well as recommendations to the participating organisation. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2008.

In the landscape of the 21st century, where competition in the financial sector is growing even more intense, the future will belong to those organisations that harness the power and potential of their human capital. It is the one huge reservoir left largely untapped, and those organisations which do this the best will be the business winners of this century. It makes sense then that different ways on how best to utilise and develop human capital for use as leverage in the competitive arena of the workplace should be investigated. Consequently, as an alternative to getting hindered by the swirling negativity and challenges, it was proposed that a positive approach is needed. It is believed that building positive psychological capacities within organisational contexts will be a powerful means of assisting South African organisations and employees to meet their new paradigm challenges. This will aid he successful transformation and augmentation and contribute to a truly ideal "Rainbow Nation" for South Africa. The researcher believes that this can be done by drawing from the positive psychology movement, where specifically selecting and developing certain positive psychological capacities may lead to desirable performance outcomes. The objective of the research was to determine if there was a relationship between positive psychological capacities (hope, optimism, resilience, self-efficacy), psychological empowerment and job performance of employees in a financial organisation. A correlational survey design was used. The study population (n = 155) consisted of call centre employees in a financial environment in Gauteng. The State Hope Scale, Life Orientation Inventory -Revised, Resilience Scale, Self-Efficacy Scale, Measuring Empowerment Questionnaire and a biographical questionnaire were used as measuring instruments. Cronbach alpha coefficients, factor analysis, Pearson product moment correlation coefficients and stepwise multiple regression analysis were used to evaluate the data. It was found that the research group was experiencing above average levels of hope and average/moderate levels of optimism. The study also revealed that high levels of resilience and self-efficacy, as well as above average levels of psychological empowerment were being experienced by the respondents. Correlation analyses reveal a statistical and practically significant positive relationship between hope and job performance. A statistically significant relationship was found between optimism and job performance and self-efficacy and job performance. However, no statistical or practically significant relationship was found to exist between resilience and job performance and between psychological empowerment and job performance. With regards to the relationships between the constructs, correlation analyses yielded a statistical and practically significant relationship between hope and optimism, hope and resilience, hope and self-efficacy, and hope and psychological empowerment. There is also a practical and statistically significant relationship between optimism and resilience; self-efficacy and resilience and between optimism and self-efficacy. However, no practically significant relationship was found between resilience and psychological empowerment and between self-efficacy and psychological empowerment. This study also investigated if the positive psychological capacities of hope, optimism, resilience and self-efficacy and psychological empowerment, could be used to predict job performance. It was found that hope, optimism and self-efficacy can be used to predict job performance. Resilience however was found not to be a predictor of job performance. Finally this study investigated if psychological empowerment could be used to predict job performance and it was found that psychological empowerment was unfortunately found not to be predictor of job performance. Finally, recommendations were made for the organisation under study, as well as for future research purposes. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2008

This thesis investigates the social and psychological factors that might affect Omani higher education students if computerised assessment was to be implemented. A review of the literature and the historical and cultural development in Oman suggested that a number of different variables might affect students‘ performance when taking computerised assessment. These factors which include gender, college of study and geographical region of residence may cause unwanted and selective differences in student performance which are not related to the content of the assessment. In addition, the potential effects of such variables as computer experience and computer self-efficacy on student performance were investigated. The study also explored student and academic staff attitudes towards computerised assessment. Both quantitative and qualitative methods are used in this study through a selection of instruments such as a test that was delivered in different modes, questionnaires, focus groups and semi-structured interviews. Quantitative approaches are used to provide answers to the main study questions about student performance, and qualitative approaches are used to get deeper insights into the students‘ and staff members‘ perceptions, attitudes and values in relation to the research subject of the study. All these instruments were developed based upon the literature and also validated through a separate initial study. The main study took place after the instruments had been validated and involved over 400 students and 100 staff at three Omani Applied Sciences Colleges. Statistical analysis showed a small but significant difference between the two assessment modes in favour of the paper-and-pencil test. There was a significant difference in performance between both genders, with females out-performing males. However, the most striking finding was a differential effect of assessment mode between males and females. Males performed better in the computerized test than in the paper-based one, in contrast to females whose performance in the paper test was better. This suggests that the introduction of computerised testing may affect males and females in different ways. One 4 possible explanation for this is that Omani males have more opportunities to use computers inside and outside homes. The questionnaire results and the qualitative information from focus groups both showed that females were more nervous and found it more difficult to read from the computer screen than males did. Also, it was obvious in the focus group discussions that females had more negative feelings towards computerised testing compared to males, both before and after experiencing computerised assessment. The study found that students‘ performance in the English language test had showed significant variation across colleges, and among students from different regions. This variation seemed to be associated with variation in computer experience among students at the different colleges and from different regions. This may be due to regional differences or specificities, especially in terms of computer use, among the nine administrative regions in Oman. Staff attitudes and perceptions towards CAA, in general, were positive and not affected by either the gender or nationality/language factor. Most of the academic staff members revealed their willingness to implement CAA but also stressed that CAA should be gradually implemented. Both students and staff members identified a number of important points such as the need for a reliable system, qualified technicians and sufficient computers if Computer Assisted Assessment was to achieve wide acceptability.

Objectives. To see whether a cognitive behavioural guided self-help approach can reduce mental health symptoms, which patients might benefit most, and whether such a treatment increases self-efficacy and internal locus of control. Design. Repeated measures and correlational designs were used. Methods. 173 patients were recruited at a cognitive behavioural guided self-help clinic in Edinburgh, of which 97 completed the three-session intervention. Verbal IQ was estimated with the National Adult Reading Test (NART). Measures of emotional symptoms, self-efficacy and locus of control were taken before and after treatment, with follow-up at one month and six months. Results. Patients completing the intervention made favourable gains, which were maintained at six months. Self-efficacy and locus of control measures were not robustly correlated with mental health improvement, but did show pre- to posttreatment changes in themselves. Conclusions. Guided self-help appears to be a useful treatment option for those with depression, anxiety and stress. The implications of the findings, the strengths and limitations of the study, and areas for future research are discussed.

Recent studies have focused on international students’ needs and experiences in counseling training and supervision, however, there is a lack of research regarding effective approaches for supervising international students. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether international counseling supervisees' perceptions regarding the degree to which multicultural discussion occurred in their university supervision moderates the relationship among supervision related variables, including acculturation, counselor self-efficacy, supervisory working alliance, and role ambiguity in supervision. The research questions were: (a) Does the frequency of cultural discussions in university supervision, as perceived by international counseling supervisees, moderate the relationship between acculturation to the US and counseling self-efficacy among international counseling students in the US, (b) Does the frequency of cultural discussions in university supervision, as perceived by international counseling supervisees, moderate the relationship between supervisory working alliance and counseling self-efficacy among international counseling students in the US, and (c) Does the frequency of cultural discussions in university supervision, as perceived by international counseling supervisees, moderate the relationship between supervisory working alliance and counseling self-efficacy among international counseling students in the US. Three moderation analyses were utilized, using regression analysis, to answer each research question. The results from the analysis indicated no significant moderating affect of frequency of multicultural discussions among supervision related variables of interest. Interpretation of the results included possibility of a direct relationship among the variables, or other potential moderators as well as probability of false negative results (Type II Error). / School of Education; / Counselor Education and Supervision (ExCES) / PhD; / Dissertation;

The ultimate treatment is when the person actually wants to make a change, this is often not the case for the youths that get placed at an institution for substance use problems. This thesis examines the participation in youth care through looking into how the staff in youth care make boys aged 16-21 at a closed institution to participate in their treatment, and if the participation has a meaning for the treatment. This thesis uses a qualitative method with semi-structured interviews. The theory of self-efficacy has been used to gain an understanding for the results of the thesis. Treatment staff from a department who works with this target group has been interviewed. The results showed that the staff works with motivation, respect and are trying to create a good treatment relationship with the youths. The staff thinks it’s positive that the youths can affect their treatment, but they’re also saying that the treatment the youths have to participate in can’t be affected. The staff thinks this is good because treatment for their substance use is the reason they are placed at the institution. Therefore the staff tries to motivate the youths to participation. At last the thesis shows that participation is the key to go through with treatment and therefore become drug free.

Students´ achievements in scientific subjects, such as biology, have stringently declined during the past decade. In order to disrupt these declining results in scientific subjects it´s important to identify factors leading to decreased academic achievements within the scientific subjects. This study aims to investigate the association between students´ achievements in biology and self-efficacy beliefs, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation among 120 Swedish students with an age between thirteen and fifteen years s. A self-efficacy sub-scale of the “Motivational for Learning Questionnaire” (MSLQ) was used to evaluate students´ self-efficacy beliefs and an “Academic Motivation Scale for Learning Biology” (AMSLB) was used to determine students´ motivation to learn biology. The results showed a significant positive correlation between students´ biology achievement and self-efficacy beliefs, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Further, a significant negative correlation was found between students´ biology achievement and amotivation. These findings indicates that both self-efficacy beliefs, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation could be important underlying factors that positively impact students´ achievements in biology.

Background: Science poses a unique challenge to the elementary curriculum landscape, because traditionally elementary teachers report low levels of self-efficacy in this subject. Instructional leadership in elementary science therefore, becomes important for a successful integration of a new science education agenda. The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) are K-12 science content standards available for adoption by states and school districts in the U.S. Principals are important actors during policy implementation since they are charged with assuming the role of an instructional leader for their teachers in all subject areas. Purpose: This study gathered self-reported survey data from public elementary principals that pertain to their background and experiences in science, and then relate these data to their levels of self-efficacy and instructional leadership capacity for science. The study answers the following three research questions: (1) What type of science backgrounds do elementary principals have? (2) What indicators predict if elementary principals will engage in instructional leadership behaviors in science? (3) Does self-efficacy mediate the relationship between science background and capacity for instructional leadership in science? Data Collection and Analysis: A questionnaire was created by combining two existing subscales to measure instructional leadership practices and self-efficacy in science, and also a series of objective questions to address principals’ background experiences and demographic information. Public school elementary principals serving in 13 states that formally adopted the NGSS through legislative action provided the data analyzed in this study (N = 667). The survey data were analyzed quantitatively for descriptive statistics to answer the first research question, inferential statistics through an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) hierarchal regression analysis to answer the second, and a mediation analysis to answer the third research question. Findings: The sample data show that 21% of the elementary principals have a formal science degree and 26% have a degree in a STEM field. Most principals have not had recent experience teaching science (75.86%), nor were they every strictly a science teacher (86.66%). The hierarchical regression analysis suggests that there is evidence that both demographic and experiential variables predict instructional leadership practices in science. The analysis also suggests that self-efficacy is a mediating variable for principals’ science teaching experiences related to instructional leadership behaviors. Conclusions: The data from this research reveal potential (a) leadership development opportunities, (b) training and recruitment needs of school districts, (c) areas in need of attention in principal preparation programs, and (d) directions for policy implementation to leverage principal capacity. The findings provide evidence to assist in identifying ways elementary principals could be better prepared to be instructional leaders for their teachers, especially in those settings where the implementation of the NGSS is underway.

The clinical learning environment (CLE) provides students with an opportunity to build confidence and competence in the provision of patient care (Benner, 2010). The aim of this qualitative descriptive research was to explore and describe student perceptions of developing confidence through their clinical learning experiences, discovering what features of the CLE support their learning and the development of confidence. Ten students were recruited through purposive sampling and participated in one-on-one semi-structured interviews. Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1997) was used as a theoretical framework to guide this research and for the interpretation of the content analysis. The analysis revealed five socio-structural themes that support student learning and development of confidence. These findings elaborate Bandura’s (1997) theory. The most influential, through verbal persuasion was the clinical nursing instructor (CNI) followed by self, the buddy nurse, peers, and the staff/unit environment. Students perceived their development of confidence through a bi-directional interaction between their cognitive/affective processes, behaviour and the CLE. Understanding student perceptions of their confidence development, signals the need for informed pedagogical strategies to support student learning and development of confidence. / October 2016