Os consumidores residenciais de energia elétrica no Brasil pagam um preço constante pela mesma em qualquer horário do dia, a despeito da variação constante nos custos de oferta. Isto não é economicamente eficiente. Para se atingir esta eficiência a implantação de uma tarifa inteligente se faz necessária, questão mais factível com o advento das redes inteligentes. Este trabalho busca antever se este desenvolvimento é custo efetivo ou não. Em primeiro lugar, os conceitos de redes inteligentes e de medidores avançados são apresentados. Em segundo lugar, são apresentados os conceitos de resposta da demanda e se demonstra porque o preço da eletricidade, para o consumidor final, deve ser maior na ponta do que fora da ponta. Por fim, se busca fazer uma análise custo benefício de um projeto hipotético de Infraestrutura de Leitura Avançada, desenvolvido por uma distribuidora de energia da região Centro Oeste do Brasil, a partir do estudo de cenários. Esse projeto hipotético ocorre num horizonte de dez anos, entre 2014 e 2023. O primeiro passo foi o desenvolvimento de campanhas de medição entre os anos de 2012 e 2013. Usando os dados aí obtidos, duas curvas de carga horárias foram desenvolvidas, uma para os dias úteis e a outra para finais de semana e feriados. O horário de pico é entre as 19 e as 22 horas nos dias úteis, e das 18 as 23 horas nos finais de semana e feriados. O custo da oferta e o consumo total de eletricidade foram obtidos, respectivamente, no Operador Nacional do Sistema e na Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica. Os resultados obtidos em 15 experimentos prévios foram usados para estimar as hipotéticas elasticidades preço e elasticidades de substituição. Duas modalidades tarifárias foram testadas nos cenários: Tarifa Pelo Horário de Uso e Tarifa Pelo Horário de Uso com Preço de Pico Crítico. Os resultados obtidos ficaram aquém dos conceitualmente previstos. Uma análise é feita para tentar entender a razão desta resposta. / Residential customers in Brazil pay a constant price throughout the day, despite the large time variation in costs of supply. It is not economically efficient. It is necessary to set it to costumers with smart rates, and this possibility is getting closer from the development of smart grids. This work aims understand in advance if this deployment is cost-effective or not. Firstly, the concepts of Smart Grids, AMR (Automatic Meter Reading) and AMI (Advanced Metering Infrastructure) are presented. Secondly, concepts of demand response are described, and there is a demonstration of the reasons why electricity peak prices must be higher than off-peak prices. Thirdly, we seek to make a cost-benefit analysis for a hypothetical AMI project installation to residential customers, served by a utility in the Middle West of Brazil, under some potential scenarios. This hypothetical project runs in a ten year horizon (2014-2023). The first step was to perform measurement campaigns in 2012 and 2013. Using the data obtained, two residential hourly load curves were developed, one for weekdays and another for weekends and holidays. Peak time occurs between 7 and 10 PM in weekdays, and from 6 to 11 PM on weekends and holidays. The cost of supply and total consumption in the residential segment were obtained, respectively, from the Brazilian National System Operator (ONS) and Electric Energy Agency (ANEEL). The results obtained in fifteen previous experiments were used to estimate hypotheticals price elasticity and elasticity of substitution. Two types of rates were tested in scenarios: TOU and TOU with CPP. The results were lower than expected. An analysis is made to try to understand the reasons for this answer.

Diese Dissertation widmet sich der Erarbeitung verschiedener Managementstrategien für ein leistungsflussoptimierendes Energiemanagement von dezentralen Energieversorgungssystemen in zukünftigen Niederspannungsnetzstrukturen. Als dezentrales Energieversorgungssystem ist dabei eine beliebige Kombination von Erzeuger-, Verbraucher- und Speichereinheiten zu sehen. Die Optimierung des Leistungsflusses auf Niederspannungsebene wird durch zwei Managementansätze untersucht. In einem verlustoptimierten Managementansatz stehen die bekannten Leitverluste, verursacht durch die wirksamen Leitungsresistanzen, im Fokus der Betrachtung. Durch einen zweiten Ansatz, dem clusterbasierten Managementansatz, wird nochmals eine Fokussierung auf die wirksamen Leitungsresistanzen durch eine Cluster-Bildung von Hausanschlüsen erreicht, welche nur durch geringe wirksame Leitungsresistanzen voneinander getrennt sind. Anhand realitätsnaher Netzabbildungen sowie unterschiedlicher Erzeuger- und Verbrauchersituationen wird der Einfluss eines solchen Energiemanagements auf die Integration dezentraler Erzeuger und der Leitverluste gezeigt sowie die Möglichkeit einer netzoptimierten Betriebsweise untersucht. / This thesis includes two different options to manage the situation of consumption and supply in a low-voltage grid. On the one hand the energy management is based on the optimization of the losses in the low-voltage grid caused by the resistance of the branchs. On the other hand the resistance between consumption and supply is the optimized parameter. This is implemented with a clustering of the whole low-voltage grid in groups of households. Based on realistic models of low-voltage grids and different situations of consumption and supply the two management strategies are tested. These tests shows the influence on the losses, the integration of distributed suppliers and the controlled power flow to the medium-voltage grid.

Dans le cadre des débats sur la transition énergétique, l'implémentation des Smart Grids est avancée comme une part de la solution pour répondre à la fois aux questions climatiques et aux enjeux énergétiques. Les modèles de prospective constituent des outils d'aide à la décision permettant d'orienter les trajectoires énergétiques afin de satisfaire aux futures demandes en tenant compte de contraintes environnementales et techniques. Ces modèles historiques, caractérisés principalement par l'adéquation de l'offre à la demande doivent désormais évoluer pour intégrer les développements futurs attendus du système électrique. Dans ce travail, nous avons implémenté dans une approche de long terme différentes fonctionnalités propres aux Smart Grids (gestion de la demande, stockage, énergies renouvelables). Cette approche nous permet d'évaluer les bénéfices liés à chacune d'entre elles séparément, ou bien conjointement au travers de bouquets de solutions, tenant ainsi compte des possibles interactions entre ces fonctionnalités. Nous avons également intégré un indicateur reflétant le niveau de fiabilité du système électrique dans notre modèle. Ce paramètre supplémentaire permet de contraindre les futurs systèmes électriques afin qu'ils garantissent un niveau de service en terme de fourniture électrique identique à celui des systèmes existants. Cette étude est illustrée par le cas de l'île de la Réunion, qui s'est donné pour objectif de produire d'ici 2030 son électricité à partir de sources uniquement renouvelables, et pour qui les fonctionnalités de Smart Grids pourraient constituer un levier intéressant.

Electricity networks are undergoing a period of rapid change and transformation, with increased penetration levels of renewable-based distributed generation, and new influences on electricity end-use patterns from demand-manageable loads and micro-generation. This creates a number of new challenges for the delivery of a reliable supply of electrical energy. The main aim of this PhD research is to provide a methodology for a more detailed and accurate assessment of the effects of wind-based distributed generation (DG) and demand side management (DSM) on transmission network operation. In addition, the work investigates the potential for co-ordinated implementation and control of DG and DSM to improve overall system performance. A significant amount of previous literature on network integration of DG and DSM resources has focused on the effects at the distribution level, where their impact is direct and often easily observed. However, as penetration levels increase, DG and DSM will have a growing influence on the operation and management of the bulk transmission system. Modelling and analysis of the impact of embedded and highly-dispersed DG and DSM resources at transmission voltage levels will present a significant challenge for transmission network operators in the future. Accordingly, this thesis presents a number of new approaches and methodologies allowing for a more accurate modelling and aggregation of DG and DSM resources in power system studies. The correct representation of input wind energy resources is essential for accurate estimation of power and energy outputs of wind-based DG. A novel modelling approach for a simple and accurate representation of the statistical and temporal characteristics of the wind energy resources is presented in the thesis. An "all-scale" approach to modelling and aggregation of wind-based generation is proposed, which is specifically intended for assessing the impact of embedded wind generation on the steady state performance of transmission systems. The methodology allows to include in the analysis wind-based generation at all scales and all levels of implementation, from micro and small LV-connected units, through medium-size wind plants connected at MV, up to large HV-connected wind farms. The thesis also presents an assessment of the potential for DSM in the UK residential and commercial sectors, based on the analysis and decomposition of measured demands at system bulk supply points into the corresponding load types. Using a section of the Scottish transmission network as a case study, a number of DG and DSM scenarios are investigated in detail. These results demonstrate the importance of accurately modelling the interactions between the supply system and various DG and DSM schemes, and show that the aggregated effects of highly-distributed DG and DSM resources can have significant impacts on the operation of the bulk transmission system.

Les engagements étatiques relatifs au secteur du transport promouvoient la popularisation des véhicules rechargeables conformément aux exigences actuelles qu'elles soient environnementales, techniques ou encore économiques. Ipso facto, ces travaux de thèse, assimilés à la thématique des Smart Grids, exposent une contribution à une gestion orientée du tryptique réseaux électriques, véhicules rechargeables et secteurs résidentiels. La première étape du travail consiste en l'évaluation des impacts liés à un taux de pénétration élevé. Les travaux se sont ensuite focalisés sur deux problèmes importants qui sont la tenue du plan de tension et le vieillissement accéléré des transformateurs de distribution HTA/BT, plus particulièrement ceux alimentant des secteurs résidentiels. Partant, des stratégies de modulation de la charge des batteries embarquées sont proposées et évaluées. Dans une seconde partie, en se basant sur l'hypothèse de bidirectionnalité énergétique du véhicule électrique hybride rechargeable (Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle - PHEV), est exploré les possibilités d'effacement de pointe et de diminution des puissances souscrites ; conformément au concept Vehicle-to-Home. Les aspects économiques ne sont pas évacués ; à ce titre la minimisation de la facture énergétique d'un logement fait l'objet d'un regard particulier sous contrainte d'une tarification variable, le V2H servant de levier. Le véhicule bidirectionnel est enfin mis à contribution via une algorithmique adaptée à des fins de réglage du plan de tension et contribue ainsi au concept Vehicle-to-Grid.

Στην παρούσα εργασία γίνεται προσπάθεια για την περιγραφή των νέων μοντέλων δικτύου ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας που αναμένεται να δώσουν λύσεις στα διάφορα προβλήματα που έχουν κάνει την εμφάνιση τους λόγω της συνεχούς αύξησης στη ζήτηση ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Βασισμένα στην αξιοποίηση των Ανανεώσιμων Πηγών Ενέργειας, τα ΜικροΔίκτυα και κατ’ επέκταση τα Έξυπνα Δίκτυα θεωρούνται οι αντικαταστάτες του παραδοσιακού κεντρικά ελεγχόμενου ηλεκτρικού δικτύου, κάνοντας χρήση των πλεονεκτημάτων της Διεσπαρμένης Παραγωγής. Έπειτα από την αναφορά στο σημαντικό ρόλο των Ανανεώσιμων Πηγών Ενέργειας, περιγράφονται αναλυτικά οι έννοιες της Διεσπαρμένης Παραγωγής, του ΜικροΔικτύου και του Έξυπνου Δικτύου. Οι νέοι αυτοί όροι έχουν ήδη αρχίσει να εισέρχονται στην πραγματικότητα του ηλεκτρικού δικτύου, καθώς υπάρχουν ήδη χρονοδιαγράμματα που επιβάλουν την επιτακτική χρήση των Ανανεώσιμων Πηγών Ενέργειας από τα κράτη, σε μια προσπάθεια να μειωθούν οι εκπομπές των αερίων του θερμοκηπίου. Οι συνεχώς εξελισσόμενες τεχνολογίες που σχετίζονται με τα νέα πρότυπα του ηλεκτρικού δικτύου παρουσιάζονται επίσης. Είναι πολύ σημαντικό οι τεχνολογίες αυτές να αναπτυχθούν όσο το δυνατόν περισσότερο, ώστε να συμβάλλουν στην άμεση, αποδοτική και οικονομικά ωφέλιμη χρήση της Διεσπαρμένης Παραγωγής και την ομαλή και ασφαλή μετάβαση προς τα Έξυπνα Δίκτυα. Στη συνέχεια γίνεται περιγραφή κάποιων μεθόδων ελέγχου των ΜικροΔικτύων και των βασικών μονάδων που το απαρτίζουν. Παρουσιάζονται η λειτουργία του ΜικροΔικτύου όταν λειτουργεί σε απομόνωση από το υπόλοιπο βασικό δίκτυο και σε σύνδεση με αυτό, καθώς οι επιπτώσεις προγραμματισμένων και μη αποσυνδέσεων από τον βασικό κορμό του δικτύου. Τέλος, βασικό κομμάτι της εργασίας αυτής αποτελεί η προσομοίωση κάποιων βασικών μονάδων του ΜικροΔικτύου, και πιο συγκεκριμένα του Μικροστροβίλου και του Ολοκληρωμένου Συστήματος Κυψελών Καυσίμου Στερεού Οξειδίου. Τα αποτελέσματα των προσομοιώσεων αυτών παρουσιάζονται και αναλύονται για την αξιολόγηση της χρήσης τους και της σπουδαιότητάς τους σε συγκεκριμένες εφαρμογές. / In the present work we make an effort to describe the new models of electric networks that are expected to give solutions in the various problems that have made their appearance due to the continuous increase in the demand of electric energy. Based in the exploitation of Renewable Sources of Energy, MicroGrids, and as a result the SmartGrids are considered to be the substitutes of traditional central-controlled electric network, making use of the advantages of Distributed Generation. After the quick reference of the important role of Renewable Sources of Energy, the terms of Distributed Generation, MicroGrid and SmartGrid are described analytically . This new terms have already begun to enter the reality of the electric network, as timetables that impose the imperative use of Renewable Sources of Energy already exist,in an effort decrease the emissions of greenhouse gases.The continuously evolving technologies that are related with the new models of electric network are also presented. It is very important that these technologies are developed as much as possible, so that they contribute in a direct, efficient and economically beneficial use of Distributed Generation and the smooth and sure transition towards the SmartGrids. Afterwards we describe certain methods of control of MicroGrids and basic units that compose them. The operation of MicroGrid when it functions in isolation from the basic network and in connection with this is described.Finally, the simulations of certain basic units of Microgrids are described, focusing on Micorturbine and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell system. The results of these simulations are presented and analyzed for the evaluation of their use and their importance in certainapplications.

Orientador: Alexandre Cezar Rodrigues da Silva / Resumo: A simulação de ambientes computacionais é uma das principais técnicas para estudo de protocolos, seu comportamento em redes de computadores e análise da segurança da informação. O acesso a ambientes reais para simulação de smart grids está restrito a poucas universidades e empresas assim como existem poucas ferramentas disponíveis para sua simulação computacional, o que dificulta a realização de pesquisas nesta linha. Neste trabalho objetiva-se a configuração de um ambiente para simulação do protocolo DNP3 utilizando exclusivamente ferramentas open source, utilizando-se técnicas de segurança ofensiva para realizar ataques a rede e então validar o comportamento da simulação e por fim realizar a integração do ambiente de simulação com equipamentos reais. Para isso, foi desenvolvido um testbed virtual através da integração e configuração de diversas ferramentas e softwares open source e posteriormente utilizados os equipamentos do Laboratório de Proteção do Campus III na UNESP de Ilha Solteira, expandindo as funcionalidades do simulador e obtendo um testbed misto com resultados promissores em todos os testes realizados. / Mestre

Redes elétricas desempenham um papel fundamental no que tange à distribuição de energia elétrica. Entretanto, as redes elétricas convencionais são muito antigas, apresentando uma série de deficiências e inseguranças. Neste cenário surgem as redes elétricas inteligentes, mais conhecidas como smart grids. Smart grids são uma evolução para as redes elétricas tradicionais, apresentando como grande diferencial a presença intensiva de tecnologia de ponta para monitorar cada elemento que a compõe. Uma das principais características de smart grids é seu fluxo bidirecional de energia e informação, que permite a qualquer elemento tanto consumir quanto fornecer energia para a rede, seja um aerogerador ou mesmo uma residência. Tal característica vai de encontro à necessidade de se distribuir a produção energética, tornando-a mais robusta e tolerante a falhas. Uma tecnologia que surgiu em meio ao desenvolvimento de smart grids denomina-se Veículo-Para-Rede (V2G, do inglês Vehicle-To-Grid). Através de sessões V2G, veículos elétricos (EVs, em inglês electric vehicles) podem vender a energia de suas baterias para a rede, obtendo lucro com este procedimento. Existem duas vantagens nesta tecnologia. Por um lado, proprietários de EVs podem obter lucro com a venda de energia, reduzindo os custos de se manter seu veículo. Por outro lado, a rede como um todo se beneficia, pois as baterias podem ser utilizadas para aumentar a estabilidade da rede. Entretanto, para que estas vantagens sejam expressivas, é necessário utilizar-se de mecanismos para aumentar a eficiência do processo V2G, uma vez que baterias são muito caras. Uma alternativa que tem sido muito explorada é a formação de coalizões entre os EVs. A proposta deste trabalho é utilizar informações sobre o domínio de smart grids de modo a impor restrições no processo de formação de coalizões de EVs, visando à redução do espaço de busca de estruturas de coalizão. Especificamente, estabelece-se a distância máxima que pode haver entre dois EVs de uma mesma coalizão, através da qual é possível identificar e podar porções inválidas do espaço de busca. Para tanto, é proposto o algoritmo CPCSG, capaz de identificar restrições entre os EVs e de podar o espaço de busca. A abordagem proposta pode ser utilizada em conjunto com algoritmos de geração de estruturas de coalizão para torná-los mais rápidos e eficientes. Com base em experimentos, percebe-se que a abordagem proposta proporciona um ganho notável de desempenho e uma redução expressiva no uso de memória em relação a outros algoritmos para geração de estruturas de coalizão. Em geral, quanto mais restritiva a rede e quanto maior o número de agentes, maior será o percentual do espaço de busca passível de ser podado. Resultados mostram, ainda, que quando comparada com outros algoritmos de geração de estruturas de coalizão, a técnica proposta chega a superar o tempo dos demais em diversas ordens de magnitude. / Electric grids play a key role in the energy distribution process. However, conventional grids are very old, which causes the onset of weaknesses and uncertainties. In such a scenario the smart grid concept arises. Smart grids are an evolution to the ageing electric grids, whose major breakthrough is the intensive use of technology to monitor every element that comprises it. One of the main features of smart grids is its bi-directional flow of electricity and information, which allows any element to consume and even supply energy to the grid, regardless of being a wind turbine or even a residence. Such a characteristic meets the need to make the energy production more distributed, making it more robust and fault tolerant. Amidst the development of smart grids emerged the concept of Vehicle-To-Grid (V2G). Through V2G sessions, electric vehicles (EVs) can sell the surplus energy of their batteries to the grid, making a profit. Two advantages arise from this technology. First, EVs’ owners can make a profit from the sale of energy, reducing their vehicles’ maintenance cost. Second, the network as a whole is benefited as batteries could be used to increase the network stability. However, in order to benefit from such advantages, it is necessary the use mechanisms to increase the efficiency of the V2G process, since batteries are very expensive. One way that has been explored is the coalition formation among EVs. The proposal of this work is to use smart grids’ domain information to impose constraints on the coalition formation process in order to reduce the coalition structures’ search space. Specifically, we define a maximum distance that can exist between two EVs of a given coalition, through which it is possible to identify and prune invalid portions of the search space. To this end, we propose the CPCSG algorithm, which has the capability of identifying constraints among EVs and pruning the search space. The proposed approach can be used together with coalition structure generation algorithms to make them faster and more efficient. Based on experiments, it can be seen that our approach provides a noticeable performance gain and a significant memory usage reduction compared to other coalition structure generation algorithms. In general, the more restrictive the grid and the greater the number of agents, the greater the percentage of the search space that can be pruned. Results also show that when compared with other coalition structure generation algorithms, the proposed technique is able to overcome the other in time by several orders of magnitude.

Dissertação (mestrado)—Universidade de Brasília, Faculdade de Tecnologia, Departamento de Engenharia Elétrica, 2016. / Submitted by Albânia Cézar de Melo (albania@bce.unb.br) on 2016-08-22T13:47:09Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2016_LorenaMeloSilva.PDF: 3377492 bytes, checksum: 428988e6ca5af4ddc218ef280ee5100e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Raquel Viana(raquelviana@bce.unb.br) on 2016-11-01T10:23:10Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2016_LorenaMeloSilva.PDF: 3377492 bytes, checksum: 428988e6ca5af4ddc218ef280ee5100e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-11-01T10:23:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2016_LorenaMeloSilva.PDF: 3377492 bytes, checksum: 428988e6ca5af4ddc218ef280ee5100e (MD5) / O Setor Elétrico Brasileiro - SEB é extremamente complexo, com uma extensa cadeia de valor interligada por meio do Sistema Interligado Nacional – SIN. Em especial durante os últimos anos, tal complexidade aumentou com o crescimento da demanda, a inserção de novas fontes de geração, e o envelhecimento dos sistemas existentes. Nesse contexto, que também se verifica no restante do mundo, em diferentes escalas, as Redes Elétricas Inteligentes, ou Smart Grids, surgem como uma forma de proporcionar à sociedade maior segurança de abastecimento, possibilitar a resposta por parte da demanda, a melhora dos índices de qualidade pelo rápido reconhecimento e restabelecimento do sistema diante de distúrbios e falhas, maior eficiência nas instalações de transmissão e distribuição, redução de perdas, dentre tantas outras. O objetivo deste trabalho é aprimorar as análises acerca dos custos e benefícios decorrentes de projetos em Redes Elétricas Inteligentes a partir da ótica das características de concessões de distribuição escolhidas, pensando na implantação das Redes Elétricas Inteligentes não como um fator acessório aos sistemas atuais, mas sim de forma ampla e com o objetivo de mudar o relacionamento entre o consumidor e os sistemas elétricos atuais. A partir dos resultados, serão identificados conjuntos de características importantes para a viabilidade da implantação, configurando ferramenta acessória para a decisão de investimento em Redes Elétricas Inteligentes. __________________________________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT / The electrical energy sector in Brazil is extremely complex, with an extensive value chain interconnected by the national grid. Especially during the recent years, this complexity has increased with the growth of energy demand, the introduction of new generation sources, and the aging of existing systems. In this context, which is also verified in other countries in different scales, the Smart Grids arise as a way to provide society a greater supply reliability, enable the response of the consumer, the improvement of energy quality through fast recognition of disturbances and system restoration after failures, greater efficiency in transmission and distribution facilities, reducing of losses, among other benefits. The objective of this work is to improve the cost and benefits analysis for Smart Grids projects by the perspective of electric power distribution utilities characteristics, in order to promote the implementation of Smart Grids not as an auxiliary factor to nowadays electrical systems, but as a wide project, in order to change the way the consumer interacts with the energy sector, in opposition with the current situation. The results obtained will indicate the most significant features to the viability of the implementation, by setting an ancillary tool for investment decision in Smart Grids.

Orientador: Luis Carlos Origa de Oliveira / Resumo: O gerenciamento econômico de transformadores de distribuição é de fundamental importância no planejamento econômico das concessionárias de energia, pois estão presentes em grande quantidade no sistema elétrico. No novo conceito de redes inteligentes, novas considerações sobre as perdas nos transformadores devem ser feitas e outras possibilidades de gerenciamento podem ser exploradas. A primeira afirmação se deve ao fato do aumento da não-linearidade no perfil da carga no transformador, proveniente do aumento de cargas eletrônicas e de unidades de geração distribuída que utilizam conversores eletrônicos para conexão com a rede. A segunda afirmação é justificada pela infraestrutura avançada de medição presente nas redes inteligentes, o que possibilita acesso remoto e dinâmico a uma maior quantidade de informações fundamentais para análise das condições operacionais dos transformadores. Este trabalho analisa como utilizar um sistema de monitoramento em redes inteligentes em conjunto com o cálculo de perdas para identificação de transformadores sobrecarregados. Além disso, com o conhecimento das curvas de carga diária, dos índices econômicos vigentes, desenvolveu-se um aplicativo para gerenciamento de unidades transformadoras em operação, ferramenta esta que poderá ser utilizada no sistema de gestão de ativos das concessionárias. / Doutor