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<p>The central question in this research asks why some women do "men's work." The literature suggests two basic approaches: according to the demand approach, women are placed in certain jobs because of employment practices; according to the supply approach women are inclined to look for certain kinds of work. The supply explanation suggests that the socialization of a woman influences her work motivation and the kinds of work she will consider for employment. Our research focus is on such supply factors. Our general hypothesis is that women who enter non-traditional occupations will have had non-traditional socialization experiences; women who enter traditional occupations will have had traditional socialization experiences. Specific hypotheses are developed to capture the influence of the family and, in particular, the role of a working mother on the work behavior of the daughter.</p> <p>To test our hypotheses a sample of 111 women was drawn. Our aim was to select both a traditional and nontraditional occupation in professional and non-professional categories. Two occupations were chosen--elementary school teachers and registered nursing assistants--and defined as traditional areas of female employment. Two occupations--pharmacists and policewomen--had a small number of women employed and they were titled non-traditional female occupational areas of employment. The quantitative and qualitative data gathered through interviews are used to test specific hypotheses and explore patterns within each hypothesis. The data are presented in three chapters: the influence of the family of origin, the effect of education and school experiences and the importance of the work environment and conjugal family on the work behavior of women in traditional and non-traditional occupations.</p> <p> The research shows that the socialization experiences within the family of origin reveal no significant difference between women who selected traditional occupations and those who selected non--traditional employment. In fact, almost all of the women in our sample, in all occupations, expressed traditional values regarding work and home. However, the research did find that socialization experiences are important in providing more general occupational orientations which directed the women toward either "professional" goals or "work" goals. Moreover, social class variables were more important in determining these occupational orientations than were the hypothesized sex-role variables.</p> <p>As well, the women's attitudes regarding school were largely a function of their socialization experiences in the home. Professional women placed a high evaluation on schooling and were more likely to report that they had done well in school. This was rarely the case for the non-professional woman. For women who had acquired professional aspirations, academic performance seems to have been an important factor in their occupational choice. The women who did not aspire to careers and who therefore did not view formal education as an important occupational route seem to have been most vulnerable to the vagaries of chance. The most important factor in their occupational choice appears to have been the influence of close informal work contacts.</p> <p>With respect to their experiences at work, women in non-traditional occupations were more likely to report that they had experienced sexual discrimination than were women in traditional occupations. However, the data suggest that such perceptions may reflect a greater consciousness of a "minority status" than actual discrimination. Almost all of the married women in our sample were concerned about the potentially conflicting demands of family and work. However, professional women seem to have the greatest number of alternatives in dealing with these demands. The problems are greatest for those women who work because they need the money and who work in occupations which are inflexible. </p> <p>The central theme of the data suggests clearly that women's early socialization experiences are important in the development of professional or job orientations but less important in the selection of a traditional or nontraditional occupation. In the most general terms, the research suggests that supply factors are important in constraining women's occupational behavior. However, the data also lead us to believe that as more male dominated occupations are ''opened up" to women, there will be women-even traditional women--to take the positions.</p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The importance of childhood social functioning has been well established in the clinical and research literature. Recently, empirical investigations have underscored the long-term stability of aberrant patterns of childhood social interaction such as social withdrawal and aggression. As such, it is critical to be able to identify such patterns of behavior in children. The purpose of the present study was to conduct a multimethod behavioral assessment of childhood social withdrawal. Fourth and fifth grade children identified by teachers as socially withdrawn were compared with children identified by teachers as socially well-adjusted. A teacher nomination procedure was used to identify thirty withdrawn and thirty well-adjusted boys and girls. A multimethod behavioral assessment was conducted using the following techniques: (1) self-report measures of anxiety, fear, and depression; (2) a teacher rating scale of withdrawn classroom behavior; (3) peer sociometric measures; (4) behavioral observations of peer interaction; (5) parent ratings of withdrawn behavior; (6) behavioral role-play task; and (7) a cognitive social self-statement test. Results indicated that teacher-identified withdrawn and well-adjusted children differed significantly on the majority of these measures. Withdrawn children reported more fear, anxiety, and depression than did well-adjusted children. Using a rating scale of discrete behaviors, teachers were able to discriminate between withdrawn and well-adjusted children. Peers, too, were able to differentiate between withdrawn and well-adjusted children. Withdrawn children received significantly lower peer sociometric ratings and fewer sociometric nominations than did well-adjusted children. Behavioral observations of peer interaction revealed that withdrawn children were more likely to spend free-play time engaged in solitary or adult-oriented activity than were well-adjusted children. Finally, results of the cognitive social self-statement test yielded significant differences between withdrawn and well-adjusted boys and girls. In particular, withdrawn boys endorsed more inhibiting thoughts and fewer facilitating thoughts than did well-adjusted children. / Ph. D.