Magister Commercii - MCom / Inequality in South Africa has long been recognised as one of the most salient features of our society. Despite many efforts by the government to reduce inequality since our democratic transition in 1994, progress has been limited. The historic patterns of accumulation and economic concentration have continued to feed into South Africa’s patterns of uneven and combined development. Moreover, financial markets in many countries are undeniably incomplete, segmented, and inefficient. This is largely attributed by high transaction costs for both institutions and clients as well as biases against certain parts of the market. Therefore, people will continue to transact outside the formal financial system if they lack easy access and use of formal financial institutions. Private resources are often used in formal areas that provide better access and higher return on investment for private institutions. As a result, the development of the poorest areas remains relatively neglected.

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O turismo é um fenômeno social e econômico que possibilita a reprodução do capital por meio do uso e da apropriação do espaço, no sentido de que é através do consumo do lugar que a atividade turística se consolida. A mercantilização do lugar é parte do processo de reprodução do capital e, neste sentido, os lugares são ressignificados. Nesta pesquisa, buscamos entender como ocorreu o desenvolvimento do turismo sexual e sua consolidação no Nordeste do Brasil. No geral, nos países periféricos do sistema capitalista, o turismo sexual vem encontrando um amplo espaço para seu desenvolvimento, onde viajantes de países economicamente mais desenvolvidos buscam encontrar um atrativo mercado sexual. Neste caso, esta pesquisa trata o turismo sexual como um conceito caracterizado pela viagem motivada pela busca de sexo. Em nosso estudo específico busca entender como e porquê o Nordeste brasileiro tornou-se locus deste tipo de turismo. O turismo sexual tem se desenvolvido pela correlação de diversos fatores, de ordem socioeconômica, histórica e cultural. Nessa pesquisa, buscamos abordar cada um desses fatores, a fim de encontrar um ponto de convergência que nos apontasse o porquê de o Nordeste brasileiro ter sido inserido na geografia do turismo sexual. A partir da década de 1990, na região Nordeste, algumas cidades começaram a receber incentivos para maior desenvolvimento do turismo conhecido como sol e praia. Nesse momento, políticas e planos estruturaram o mercado de turismo na região, fazendo com que essas cidades recebessem maiores investimentos em infraestrutura, a fim de incrementar seu potencial turístico. Como consequência, o segmento do turismo sexual também começou a crescer nessas cidades. De uma forma menos estruturada da presente em cidades tailandesas, por exemplo, as cidades nordestinas terminaram por se inserir na geografia do turismo sexual internacional. / Tourism is a social and economic phenomenon that provides the reproduction of capital through the use and appropriation of space, for it is through the consumption of a place that touristic activities are consolidated. The commodification of the place is part of the process of reproduction of capital, and thus places are resignified. For this research, it was sought to understand how does sex tourism develops and consolidates in the Northeast of Brazil. Generally, sex tourism has found a broad space for its development within the countries on the periphery of capitalism, in which travelers from developed countries seek to find an attractive sex market. In this case, this research adresses sex tourism as a concept, defined by a trip motivated by the search for sex. Our particular study aims to understand how and why the Brazilian Northeast has become a locus for this type of tourism. Sex tourism has been developing by the correlation of several factors regarding socio-economic, historical and cultural order. In this research, it was sought to address each of these factors, in order to find a point of convergence that might lead us to the reason why Brazilian Northeast has been included in the geography of sex tourism. From the early 90\'s, in the northeastern region, some cities had began to receive financial incentives for the further development of a tourism known as \"sun and beach\". By that moment, policies and plans had structured tourism market in that area, through providing those cities greater investments in infrastructure, in order to increase their touristic potential. As consequence, the segment of the sex tourism had simultaneously began to grow within those cities. In a less structured way than what is seen in Thai cities, Northeastern cities, as a matter of fact, ended up being a part of international sex tourism geography.

O turismo é um fenômeno social e econômico que possibilita a reprodução do capital por meio do uso e da apropriação do espaço, no sentido de que é através do consumo do lugar que a atividade turística se consolida. A mercantilização do lugar é parte do processo de reprodução do capital e, neste sentido, os lugares são ressignificados. Nesta pesquisa, buscamos entender como ocorreu o desenvolvimento do turismo sexual e sua consolidação no Nordeste do Brasil. No geral, nos países periféricos do sistema capitalista, o turismo sexual vem encontrando um amplo espaço para seu desenvolvimento, onde viajantes de países economicamente mais desenvolvidos buscam encontrar um atrativo mercado sexual. Neste caso, esta pesquisa trata o turismo sexual como um conceito caracterizado pela viagem motivada pela busca de sexo. Em nosso estudo específico busca entender como e porquê o Nordeste brasileiro tornou-se locus deste tipo de turismo. O turismo sexual tem se desenvolvido pela correlação de diversos fatores, de ordem socioeconômica, histórica e cultural. Nessa pesquisa, buscamos abordar cada um desses fatores, a fim de encontrar um ponto de convergência que nos apontasse o porquê de o Nordeste brasileiro ter sido inserido na geografia do turismo sexual. A partir da década de 1990, na região Nordeste, algumas cidades começaram a receber incentivos para maior desenvolvimento do turismo conhecido como sol e praia. Nesse momento, políticas e planos estruturaram o mercado de turismo na região, fazendo com que essas cidades recebessem maiores investimentos em infraestrutura, a fim de incrementar seu potencial turístico. Como consequência, o segmento do turismo sexual também começou a crescer nessas cidades. De uma forma menos estruturada da presente em cidades tailandesas, por exemplo, as cidades nordestinas terminaram por se inserir na geografia do turismo sexual internacional. / Tourism is a social and economic phenomenon that provides the reproduction of capital through the use and appropriation of space, for it is through the consumption of a place that touristic activities are consolidated. The commodification of the place is part of the process of reproduction of capital, and thus places are resignified. For this research, it was sought to understand how does sex tourism develops and consolidates in the Northeast of Brazil. Generally, sex tourism has found a broad space for its development within the countries on the periphery of capitalism, in which travelers from developed countries seek to find an attractive sex market. In this case, this research adresses sex tourism as a concept, defined by a trip motivated by the search for sex. Our particular study aims to understand how and why the Brazilian Northeast has become a locus for this type of tourism. Sex tourism has been developing by the correlation of several factors regarding socio-economic, historical and cultural order. In this research, it was sought to address each of these factors, in order to find a point of convergence that might lead us to the reason why Brazilian Northeast has been included in the geography of sex tourism. From the early 90\'s, in the northeastern region, some cities had began to receive financial incentives for the further development of a tourism known as \"sun and beach\". By that moment, policies and plans had structured tourism market in that area, through providing those cities greater investments in infrastructure, in order to increase their touristic potential. As consequence, the segment of the sex tourism had simultaneously began to grow within those cities. In a less structured way than what is seen in Thai cities, Northeastern cities, as a matter of fact, ended up being a part of international sex tourism geography.

Recevoir en trois ans un afflux de migrants correspondant à un quart de sa population constitue un défi majeur pour n’importe quelle nation. Cette recherche tente de comprendre comment un tel phénomène, à priori inconcevable, a pu advenir dans les villes du Liban, qui ont accueilli plus d’un million de réfugiés depuis 2011. Partant de ce phénomène brutal, elle examine les facteurs qui ont permis à ces réfugiés urbains de s'installer tant bien que mal dans des espaces marqués par des processus extrêmes d'injustices socio-spatiales. La thèse aborde cette question à trois niveaux : (1 ) à l’échelle urbaine locale, où citadins et réfugiés vivent un cycle continu de négociations dissymétriques concernant l’occupation et l’appropriation de leurs espaces respectifs, reflété dans des situations quotidiennes de tension et de conflit ; (2) au niveau national, dans lequel la géopolitique interne à la société libanaise et les effets de l’action publique du gouvernement, des collectivités territoriales et des ONG prennent un rôle direct, influençant l’accès des réfugiés à la ville ; (3) à l’échelle géopolitique internationale enfin, qui aborde la situation du Moyen-Orient. À cette échelle, l’analyse s’attache aux effets des relations historiques entre le Liban et la Syrie dans l’installation actuelle des réfugiés. Cependant, l’espace de négociation n’est pas exclusivement perçu comme le résultat d’une relation binaire entre réfugiés et société d’accueil. Plus largement, la thèse démontre comment cette relation s’insère dans des mécanismes qui produisent et reproduisent des inégalités exprimées à des échelles multiples et qui opèrent sur l’ensemble des populations citadines, que ces dernières soient d’origines syriennes, palestiniennes, qu’elles appartiennent aux différentes communautés religieuses libanaises ou qu’elles soient originaires de pays étrangers. L’étude repose sur une approche ethnographique qualitative faisant appel à diverses méthodes, particulièrement des entretiens approfondis auprès d’échantillons de population très divers. Ceux-ci sont accompagnés d’observations systématiques menées dans trois quartiers urbains : Tebbeneh à Tripoli, El-Nab’a et le camp palestinien de Bourj el-Barajneh à Beyrouth. / It is a major challenge for any nation to accommodate an influx of migrants corresponding to a quarter of its population in three years. This research seeks to understand how such a phenomenon, inconceivable at first glance, could have taken place in cities in Lebanon that have hosted over a million refugees from Syria since 2011. With this brutal phenomenon as a starting point, the thesis examines the factors that have made it possible for the urban refugees to settle in places marked by extreme processes of socio-spatial injustice. The thesis addresses this issue at three levels: (1 ) at the local urban scale, within which urban dwellers and refugees live a continuous cycle of dissymmetrical negotiations on the occupation and appropriation of their respective spaces, reflected in daily situations of tension and conflict; (2) at the national level, within which the internal geopolitics and the effects of government, local authority, and NGO actions play a direct role in influencing the access of refugees to the city; (3) finally at the international geopolitical scale which addresses the situation of the Middle East. At this scale, the analysis focuses on the effects of historical relations between Lebanon and Syria in the current settlement of refugees. Negotiating space is not seen as the result of an exclusively binary relationship between refugees and the host society. Rather, the thesis demonstrates how this relationship fits into mechanisms that produce and reproduce inequalities expressed on multiple scales, and touch all urban dwellers - whether they are originally Syrian, Palestinian, Lebanese from different religious groups, or even from a foreign country. The study is based on a qualitative ethnographic approach using a variety of methods, particularly in-depth interviews with diverse population samples. These are accompanied by systematic observations in three urban neighbourhoods: Tebbeneh in Tripoli, El-Nab'a and the Palestinian camp of Bourj el-Barajneh in Beirut.

A wave of maternity unit closure is sweeping through the North Atlantic zone, leaving rural communities without the care they crucially need. In its wake resistance grows, mobilizing against closures in the face of a discourse of economic efficiency and neoliberal austerity. To understand the issue, research on maternity care and geography offer useful insights on the particular costs and consequences of losing access to care but is less useful for engaging the causes behind them. Not suffering from a lack of critical engagement, Marxist theory enables the wave to be understood in terms of changing political incentives and the ways these have come about. The present essay brings the two fields together in an effort to aid local resistance in rural communities, concluding that regionalization does not operate on a logic of its own as is otherwise stated but on the logic of markets, imposed on governments by the neoliberalization of the Western world and beyond. The essay aims to provide the political-economic framework needed to confrontt he logic of markets, neoliberalism, and the capitalist political-economic system that underline the closures.

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