Coastal zone become the object which is used to develop when the economy developed quickly and population increase. As a result of coastal zone is a region which involves economy, environment, ecology, and engineering. We must integrated many factors and coordinated related groups. Then we can achieve the goal of sustainable development. The research involved the knowledge and experiences from Europe, American, and Japan. Except they used a construct of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) to think the questions, they combined ecology, water conservancy engineering, social economic activities, and environmental protection. Then they used DSR framework as the foundation to establish the system which evaluated sustainable development of the coastal zone, and they can develop the system dynamic model analyzing the coastal management in many conditions. Land subsidence is a potential crisis, it grows obviously with the time and has the impact to the environment., When typhoon occurs in the west part of Taiwan coastal area, draining which is unable to operate may cause flood, mole avalanche, seawater intrusion and soil salinization. First we must understand the origin and the management of land subsidence, then we can make the effective strategies by researching different background and geography characteristic of the region. As a result of land subsidence involves economy, environment, ecology and engineering, the process of land subsidence is a complex problem which has multiple causes. This problem usually involves time-delay and long-term effect. System dynamics is an approach that is used to describe, explore and analyze the procedure, information and the boundary of organizations in complex systems. Such model is good for solving dynamic complex problems with non-linearity, causal circulation, information feedback and time-delay as long as the estimative parameter fall in its confidence level. The object of the research is to inspect land subsidence in the Pingtung plain. Therefore, this study proposes to find strategies which is suitable to solve interested problems according to integrate social-economic and ecologic-environment development. The framework of the research is based on the DSR (Driving forces-State-Response) index, and it makes evaluated factor from collecting domestic and foreign literature. Then we selected the important factors and its weight value by using the method of AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Process) to visit the expert and the scholar. According to above, we developed the model of system dynamics and build confidence in the model. In addition, the result of the simulation can provide good supporting information for decision makers by using the model for several strategies simulation and making the index to represent the performance of simulation analysis.

It has long been known that any activity that results in changes in subsurface pressure, such as hydrocarbon production or waste or water reinjection, also causes underground deformations and movement, which can be described in terms of volumetric changes. Such deformations induce surface movement, which has a significant environmental impact. Induced surface deformations are measurable as vertical displacements; horizontal displacements; and tilts, which are the gradient of the surface deformation. The initial component of this study is a numerical model developed in C++ to predict and calculate surface deformations based on assumed subsurface volumetric changes occurring in a reservoir. The model is based on the unidirectional expansion technique using equations from Okada’s theory of dislocations (Okada, 1985). A second numerical model calculates subsurface volumetric changes based on surface deformation measurements, commonly referred to as solving for the inverse case. The inverse case is an ill-posed problem because the input is comprised of measured values that contain error. A regularization technique was therefore developed to help solve the ill-posed problem. A variety of surface deformation data sets were analyzed in order to determine the surface deformation input data that would produce the best solution and the optimum reconstruction of the initial subsurface volumetric changes. Tilt measurements, although very small, were found to be much better input than vertical displacement data for finding the inverse solution. Even in an ideal case with 0 % error, tilts result in a smaller RMSE (about 12 % smaller in the case studied) and thus a better resolution. In realistic cases with error, adding only 0.55 % of the maximum random error in the surface displacement data affects the back-calculated results to a significant extent: the RMSE increased by more than 13 times in the case studied. However, in an identical case using tilt measurements as input, adding 20 % of the maximum surface tilt value as random error increased the RMSE by 7 times, and remodelling the initial distribution of the volumetric changes in the subsurface was still possible. The required area of observation can also be reduced if tilt measurements are used. The optimal input includes tilt measurements in both directions: dz/dx and dz/dy. iv With respect to the number of observation points chosen, when tilts are used with an error of 0 %, very good resolution is obtainable using only 0.4 % of the unknowns as the number of benchmarks. For example, using only 10 observation points for a reservoir with 2500 elements, or unknowns resulted in an acceptable reconstruction. With respect to the sensitivity of the inverse solution to the depth of the reservoir and to the geometry of the observation grid, the deeper the reservoir, the more ill-posed the problem. The geometry of the benchmarks also has a significant effect on the solution of the inverse problem.

It has long been known that any activity that results in changes in subsurface pressure, such as hydrocarbon production or waste or water reinjection, also causes underground deformations and movement, which can be described in terms of volumetric changes. Such deformations induce surface movement, which has a significant environmental impact. Induced surface deformations are measurable as vertical displacements; horizontal displacements; and tilts, which are the gradient of the surface deformation. The initial component of this study is a numerical model developed in C++ to predict and calculate surface deformations based on assumed subsurface volumetric changes occurring in a reservoir. The model is based on the unidirectional expansion technique using equations from Okada’s theory of dislocations (Okada, 1985). A second numerical model calculates subsurface volumetric changes based on surface deformation measurements, commonly referred to as solving for the inverse case. The inverse case is an ill-posed problem because the input is comprised of measured values that contain error. A regularization technique was therefore developed to help solve the ill-posed problem. A variety of surface deformation data sets were analyzed in order to determine the surface deformation input data that would produce the best solution and the optimum reconstruction of the initial subsurface volumetric changes. Tilt measurements, although very small, were found to be much better input than vertical displacement data for finding the inverse solution. Even in an ideal case with 0 % error, tilts result in a smaller RMSE (about 12 % smaller in the case studied) and thus a better resolution. In realistic cases with error, adding only 0.55 % of the maximum random error in the surface displacement data affects the back-calculated results to a significant extent: the RMSE increased by more than 13 times in the case studied. However, in an identical case using tilt measurements as input, adding 20 % of the maximum surface tilt value as random error increased the RMSE by 7 times, and remodelling the initial distribution of the volumetric changes in the subsurface was still possible. The required area of observation can also be reduced if tilt measurements are used. The optimal input includes tilt measurements in both directions: dz/dx and dz/dy. iv With respect to the number of observation points chosen, when tilts are used with an error of 0 %, very good resolution is obtainable using only 0.4 % of the unknowns as the number of benchmarks. For example, using only 10 observation points for a reservoir with 2500 elements, or unknowns resulted in an acceptable reconstruction. With respect to the sensitivity of the inverse solution to the depth of the reservoir and to the geometry of the observation grid, the deeper the reservoir, the more ill-posed the problem. The geometry of the benchmarks also has a significant effect on the solution of the inverse problem.

Late Ordovician Red River strata of southeastern Saskatchewan were deposited in a broad epicontinental sea. In the lower part, the Yeoman and Herald formations comprise two cycles of carbonateevaporite sequences. Although these units possess an overall layer-cake aspect, thickness variations especially in the Herald Formation show that accumulation was affected by syndepositional flexure, differential subsidence and displacement of fault-bounded blocks. The mainly laminated dolomudstones and anhydrites of the Lake Alma and Coronach members of the Herald Formation were deposited under relatively tranquil conditions. These units host different kinds of synsedimentary deformation features, interpreted to have been induced by earthquakes generated because of movements along basement faults thought to have been oriented orthogonally NE−SW and NW−SE. The low-energy environmental setting was conducive to preserving these features, referred to as seismites.<p> The variety of seismites in the Herald Formation is related to the varying rheology of the carbonate or evaporite sediment, as well as shaking intensity. Brittle and quasi-brittle failure is represented by faults, microfaults, shear-vein arrays and pseudo-intraclastic breccias, mostly in dolomudstones which must have been stiff at the time of deformation. Plastic behaviour is recorded by soft-sediment deformation, comprising a family of features that includes loop bedding, folded laminae and convolute bedding. Indeed, these structures in enterolithic anhydrite are more reasonably interpreted as due to deformation than crystal growth, volume expansion and displacement, the more usual explanations. Sediment shrinkage and concomitant fluidization are recorded by dikelets containing injected carbonate mud or granular gypsum, the latter now preserved as anhydrite. Evidence for wholesale liquefaction, however, was not observed. These rheological differences were caused by the primary nature of the sediment plus modifications due to early diagenesis and burial confinement. Shaking intensity is difficult to gauge, but it is presumed that a minimum of VI on the modified Mercalli scale was required to produce these features. Consequently, shaking of lesser magnitude was probably not recorded.<p> The geographic distribution of seismites should reflect the location of basement faults presumed to have been active during deposition, and indeed there is a concentration adjacent to the known location of syndepositonal fault lineaments. In addition, the stratigraphic distribution of seismites records higher frequencies of activity of these same faults. These distributions show that earthquake-induced ground motion was common during deposition of the Lake Alma Member in southeastern Saskatchewan but less so during deposition of the Coronach Member.<p> Seismites serve as proxies for the activity of relatively nearby syndepositional faults making up the tectonic fabric of sedimentary basins. They also point to basement features that, if re-activated, can induce fracture porosity or influence subsurface fluid flow. Syndepositional tectonism undoubtedly had a much more profound influence on many successions than is presently accepted, and its effects are more widespread than currently appreciated.

Florida's Plio-Pleistocene strata record episodes of sea-level highstands. The age of the strata is often ambiguous as there are no consistently reliable dating techniques that can be unequivocally applied to many of the units. The lack of preservation of continuous Plio-Pleistocene sedimentary sequences is a consequence of Pleistocene mean sea-levels not flooding peninsular Florida, the low volume of sedimentary supply, and the lack of new accommodation space. This study investigates a 6 m cyclothem-type set of six shallow-marine shell beds separated by five subaerially exposed packstone beds. These strata are part of the biostratigraphically-defined early Pleistocene (1.1 -- 1.6 Ma) Bermont formation and were likely deposited during a 160 kyr interval between 1.3 and 1.1 Ma. The shell beds are mollusk-rich and contain moderately well-sorted fine sands. The packstones contain sparry calcite cements and show evidence of subaerial weathering, such as an irregular upper solution surface, root molds, and sparry freshwater calcite cements. The upper surfaces of the packstones are unconformities that separate five episodes of highstand deposition. A grain-size analysis shows an upward-coarsening trend between depositional episodes, which most likely indicates a progressively decreasing water depth. The bivalve assemblages suggest a mean paleodepth during the deposition of the shell beds of approximately 7.5 m; alternatively, in situ Anodontia alba, which colonized these units after deposition, point to a depth of 1 m. A subsidence rate of 6 m/Ma is inferred from the thickness of deposits near the locality. Based on a comparison of the height of the strata with ex isting eustatic curves, the early Pleistocene age of the formation, and the 6 m/Ma subsidence rate, the most parsimonious duration for the interval between the cyclothems is 41 kyr, dominantly forced by obliquity orbital variability. Combining the data indicates that the early Pleistocene sea level was between 11.2 and 14.4 m above sea level (asl); previous estimates of early Pleistocene highstands have shown an elevation approximately 15 m asl. If the 1 m depth of Anodontia alba is used, the depth was likely 6.3 m asl.

The Llanos foreland basin of Colombia is located along the eastern margin of the northern Andes. The Llanos basin is bounded to the north by the Mérida Andes, to the east by the Guiana shield, to the south by the Serrania de la Macarena, and to the west by the frontal foothills thrust system of the Andes (the Cordillera Oriental). The Llanos foreland basin originated in the Maastrichtian, after a post-rift period during the Mesozoic, and recorded an abrupt pulse of middle Miocene subsidence possibly in response to subduction and collision events along the Pacific margin of northwestern South America. Regional east-west shortening, driven in part by collision of the Panama arc along the Pacific margin of Colombia, has built the widest part of the northern Andes. This wide area (~600 km) includes a prominent arcuate thrust salient, the Cordillera Oriental, which overthrusts the Llanos foreland along a broad V-shaped salient that projects 40 km over the northern Llanos foreland basin. In this study, I interpret 1200 km of 2D seismic data tied to 18 wells and regional potential fields (gravity and magnetic) data. Interpreted seismic data are organized into four regional (300 to 400-km-long) transects spanning the thrust salient area of the northern Llanos basin. I performed 2D flexural modeling on the four transects in order to understand the relative contributions of flexural subsidence due to tectonic and sedimentary loading. Sedimentary backstripping was applied to the observed structure maps of six Eocene to Pleistocene interpreted horizons in the foreland basin in order to remove the effects of sedimentary and water loading. Regional subsidence curves show an increase in the rate of tectonic subsidence in the thrust salient sector of the foreland basin during the middle to late Miocene. The flexural models predict changes in the middle Miocene to recent position of the eastern limit of foreland basin sediments as well as the changing location and vertical relief of the flexurally controlled forebulge. Production areas of light oil in the thrust belt and foreland basin are located either south of the thrust salient (Cusiana, Castilla, Rubiales oilfields) or north of the salient (Guafita-Caño Limon, Arauca oilfields) but not directly adjacent to the salient apex where subsidence, source rock thicknesses, and fracturing were predicted by a previous study to be most favorable for hydrocarbons. There are no reported light oil accumulations focused on the predicted present or past positions of the forebulge, but detailed comparisons of seismic reflection data with model predictions may reveal stratigraphic onlap and/or wedging relationships that could provide possible traps for hydrocarbons. / text

Galveston Bay is the second largest estuary in the Gulf of Mexico. The bay’s watershed and shoreline contains one of the largest concentrations of petroleum and chemical industries in the world, with the greatest concentration within the lower 15 km of the San Jacinto River/Houston Ship Channel (SJR/HSC). Extensive groundwater has been withdrawn to support these industries and an expanding population has resulted elevated land subsidence, with the highest land subsidence in the lower SJR/HSC, of over 3 m (3 cm yr^-1) and has decreased seaward throughout the bay to 0.6 cm yr^-1 near Galveston Island. Mercury (Hg) contamination is well documented throughout the bay’s sediments. Sediment vibra-cores were collected throughout the bay systems. 210Pb and 137Cs geochronologies from these cores was used to determine sedimentation rates and correlated to Hg profiles to estimate input histories. Relative Sea Level Rise (RSLR) is the sum of eustatic sea level rise and land subsidence. The results show sedimentation rates are high in areas with high rates of RSLR and the rates are of the same order of magnitude, however, in general, sedimentation rates are as much as 50% of RSLR, indicating that sedimentation has not kept pace with land subsidence, although they have the same relative order. Hg core profiles were correlated with radioisotope geochronologies and show significant input of Hg beginning around 1940, with a peak around 1971, and a dramatic drop off in concentration afterwards, demonstrating it to be a valuable geochronology tool. Hg concentrations were found to be dramatically higher proximal to the SJR/HSC and progressively decreasing seaward and to distal parts of the bay.

Because of the dynamic nature of shrinking and swelling of soils that are classified as Vertisols, partitioning of rainfall into infiltration and runoff in a Vertic watershed is more temporally and spatially unique than in most other watersheds. Hydrology models that account for realistic representation of crack dynamics are rarely used because the spatial and temporal patterns of cracking across a catena and under different land uses are poorly understood. The objectives of the study were to 1) determine if variability in soil cracking on a Vertisol catena, having the same soil and land cover, could be explained by shrink-swell potential of the soil and changes in soil water content; 2) characterize the temporal and spatial variability of the shrinkage of a Vertisol under different land uses; and 3) determine the relationship between specific volume and water content of soils, particularly between saturation and field capacity. The research was conducted in Vertisol catenae of the Houston Black and Heiden soil series. The catenae were located within the USDA-ARS Grassland, Soil and Water Research Laboratory, Riesel Texas. Soil samples were taken to characterize the general properties of the soils. In situ bi-weekly measurements of vertical soil movements and soil water contents were made over a two-year span. Because shrink-swell potential was high at most landscape positions, soil water content was the primary factor driving the spatial and temporal variability of soil shrinking and swelling. The measured relationship between the amount of soil subsidence and water loss generally agreed with what would be theoretically expected. Maximum soil subsidence was 120 mm in the grazed pasture, 75 mm in the native prairie, and 76 mm in the row cropped field. Shrinkage of the whole soil was not equidimensional, and the study generally indicates more horizontal shrinkage than vertical shrinkage. Laboratory analysis showed an appreciable change in volume of soils between saturation and field capacity, suggests a layer of soil layer can subside up to 4% while drying from saturation to field capacity, which indicates the common laboratory measure of shrink swell potential does not capture the complete shrink-swell behavior of soils.

After water vapour, CO₂ is the most abundant gas associated with magmatic hydrothermal systems. The detection of anomalous soil temperature gradients, and/or a significant flux of magmatic volatiles, is commonly the only surface signature of an underlying high temperature reservoir. For both heat (as water vapour) and gas to ascend to the surface, structural permeability must exist, as the unmodified bulk permeability of reservoir rock is too low to generate the focussed fluid flow typical of magmatic hydrothermal systems. This thesis reports the investigation into the surface heat and mass flow of the Ohaaki hydrothermal field using detailed surface measurements of CO₂ flux and heat flow. Detailed surface measurements form the basis of geostatistical models that quantify and depict the spatial variability of surface heat and mass flow, across the surface of both major thermal areas, as high resolution pixel plots. These maps, in conjunction with earlier heat and mass flow studies, enable: (i) estimates of the pre-production and current CO₂ emissions and heat flow for the Ohaaki Field; (ii) interpretation of the shallow permeability structures governing fluid flow, and; (iii) the spatial relationships between pressure-induced ground subsidence and permeability. Heat flow and CO₂ flux surveys indicate that at Ohaaki the soil zone is the dominant (≥ 70% and up to 99%) pathway of heat and mass release to the atmosphere from the underlying hydrothermal reservoir. Modelling indicates that although the total surface heat and mass flow at Ohaaki is small, it is highly focused (i.e., high volume per unit area) relative to other fields within the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ). Normalised CO₂ emissions are comparable to other volcanic and hydrothermal fields both regionally and globally. Despite 20 years of production, there is little difference between pre-production and current CO₂ emission rates. However, the similarity of CO₂ emission rates masks a 40% increase in CO₂ emissions from new areas of intense steaming ground that have developed in response to production of the field for electrical energy production. This increase in thermal ground emissions is offset by emission losses associated with the drying up of all steam heated pools and alkali-Cl outflows from the Ohaaki West (OHW) thermal area, in response to production-induced pressure decline. The location of surface thermal areas is governed by the occurrence of buried or partially emergent lava domes, whereas the magnitude of CO₂ flux, mass flow, and heat flow occurring within each thermal area is determined by the proximity of each dome (thermal areas) to major upflow zones. Buried or partially emergent silicic lava domes act as cross-stratal pathways for fluid flow, connecting the underlying reservoir to the surface, and bypassing several hundred metres of the poorly permeable Huka Falls Formation (HFF) caprock. For each dome complex the permeable structures governing fluid flow are varied. At Ohaaki West, thermal activity is controlled by a deep-rooted concentric fracture zone, developed during eruption of the Ohaaki Rhyolite dome. Within the steam-heated Ohaaki East (OHE) thermal area, flow is controlled by a high permeability fault damage zone (Broadlands Fault) developed within the apex of the Broadlands Dacite dome. Structures controlling alkali-Cl fluid flow at OHW also iii appear to control the occurrence and shape of major subsidence bowls (e.g., the Main Ohaaki Subsidence Bowl), the propagation of pressure decline to surface, and the development and localization of pore fluid drainage. Across the remainder of the Ohaaki field low amplitude ground subsidence is controlled by the extent of aquifer and aquitard units that underlie the HFF, and proximity to the margins of the hot water reservoir. The correlation between the extent of low amplitude ground subsidence and the margins of the field reflects the coupled relationship between the hot water reservoir and reservoir pressure. Only where thick vapour-phase zones buffer the vertical propagation of deep-seated pressure decline to the surface (i.e., OHE thermal area), is ground subsidence not correlated with subvertical structural permeability developed within the HFF. This thesis makes contributions to regional and global research on geothermal and hydrothermal systems by: (i) quantifying the origin, mass, and upward transport of magmatic carbon from geothermal reservoirs; (ii) assessing the changes to the natural surface heat and mass flow of the Ohaaki Field following 20 years of production; (iii) establishing the utility of surface CO₂ flux and heat flow surveys to identify major upflow zones, estimate minimum mass flow, and determine the enthalpy of reservoirs; (iv) providing insight into the hydrothermal, structural and lithological controls over hydrothermal fluid flow; (v) demonstrating the influence of extinct silicic lava domes as important structural elements in the localisation of hydrothermal fluid flow; (vi) identifying the hydrostructural controls governing the spatial variability in the magnitude of pressure-induced ground subsidence, from which predictive models of subsidence risk may be defined, and; (vii) developing new technologies and characterising methods used for detailed assessment of surface heat and mass flow.

Cratonic basins cover more than 10% of Earth's continental surface area, yet their origin remains enigmatic. In this thesis a suite of new and legacy geophysical and geological data are integrated to constrain the origin of the Parnaíba basin, a cratonic basin in Northeast Brazil. These data include a 1400 km long, deep (20 s two-way travel time) seismic reflection profile, five +/- 110 km offset wide-angle split-spread receiver gathers, gravity anomaly, and well data. In the centre of the basin, the depth to pre-Paleozoic basement is ~ 3.3 km, a zone of midcrustal reflectivity (MCR) can be traced laterally for ~ 250 km at depths between 17-25 km and Moho depth is ~ 42 +/- 2 km. Gravity and P-wave modelling suggests that the MCR represents the upper surface of a high density (2985 kg m³) and V_p (6.7 - 7.0 km s^-1) lower crustal body, likely of magmatic origin. Backstripping of well data shows a concave up decreasing tectonic subsidence, similar in form to that commonly observed in rift-type basins. It is shown, however, that the seismic and gravity data are inconsistent with an extensional origin. It is shown that an intrusive body in the lower crust that has loaded and flexed the surface of the crust, combined with sediment loading, provides a satisfactory fit to the observed gravity anomaly, sediment thickness and basin shape. A buried load model is also consistent with seismic data, which suggest that the Moho is as deep or deeper beneath the basin centre than its flanks and accounts for at least part of the tectonic subsidence through a viscoelastic stress relaxation that occurs in the lithosphere following load emplacement. Comparative analysis of the Michigan and Congo basins shows gravity data from these basins is also consistent with a lower crustal mass excess, while subsidence analysis shows viscoelastic stress relaxation may also contribute to their early subsidence histories. However, unlike Parnaíba, both of these basins appear to have been subjected to secondary tectonic processes that obscure the primary 'cratonic basin' subsidence signals. Parnaíba basin, therefore, offers an excellent record for the investigation of cratonic basin formation.