Urbanization affects in-stream biogeochemical processes that control nutrient export. Attempts to restore urban streams will not be successful unless the biological and physical controls on water quality are thoroughly understood. The objective of this study was to identify the relative influences of tributary dilution, groundwater discharge, and biological processing on nitrate concentrations in an urban stream during high and low flow periods. A wastewater treatment plant (WTP) on Pennypack Creek, an urban stream near Philadelphia, PA, increases nitrate concentrations to a mean of 8.5 mg-l-1 (as N). Concentrations decrease to 5.5 mg-l-1 about 7.5 km downstream. Reaches along this distance were sampled for nitrate concentration and delta-15N at fine spatial intervals to determine the reasons for this decrease. To quantify the effects of dilution, samples were collected from tributaries, groundwater springs, and upstream and downstream of tributaries or groundwater discharge zones identified through terrain analysis and continuous temperature modeling. These methods were also used to identify and sample reaches along which hyporheic flow occurred, where nitrate biological processing is often concentrated. In addition, loggers were installed at closely spaced sites to monitor daily fluctuations in nitrate, dissolved oxygen, and related parameters, which provided further indications of biological processing. Longitudinal sampling revealed decreases in nitrate concentration of 2 and 6.5 mg-l-1 during high and low flow, respectively. During high flow, delta-15N varied from 9.5 to 10.5 per mille downstream of the WTP, while delta-15N varied from 10.14 to 11.06 per mille throughout this reach during low flow. Mixing analysis indicated that groundwater discharge and biological processing both control nitrate concentration during both flow periods. Larger declines in nitrate concentration were observed during low flow than during high flow, and delta-15N fell between biological and groundwater signatures, indicating that both processes were enhanced. Continuous nitrate concentrations displayed distinct diurnal cycles often out-of-phase with dissolved oxygen cycles, indicating autotrophic processing. However, shifts occurred in nitrate cycle timing at a weekly scale wherein daily maximum concentrations were observed as many as 6 hours closer to noon than previously. These shifts were comparable to shifts observed across seasons in other studies, and by the end of the summer, nitrate and dissolved oxygen cycles were in-phase. Furthermore, shifts in nitrate cycles could not be linked to shifts in daily fluctuations of WTP discharge. Longitudinal sampling and continuous monitoring suggest that biological processing is an important control on nitrate concentrations in urban systems, though documenting its signature may be complicated by groundwater discharge and anthropogenic inputs. / Geology

This master’s thesis is focused on optimizing of the analytical method for the determination of selected drugs - estrone, estradiole, ethynylestradiol, estriole, diethylstilestrole, norethindrone, mestranole and progestrone in wastewater using liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC/MS). Solid phase extraction (SPE) using Oasis HLB cartridges was chosen extraction method Different mobile phase, temperature, flow rates and mobil phase gradient were during the process of optimization. Samples of the wastewater were collectedat the inflow and outlow of the wastewater treatment plant in Břeclav and in University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences Brno. Drugs were isolated from wastewater and preconcentrated using solid phase extraction (SPE) and determined by high performance liquid chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (HPLC/MS).

Increasing population, diminishing supplies and variable climatic conditions can cause difficulties in meeting water demands. When this long range water supply plan is developed to cope with future water demand changes, accuracy and reliability are the two most important factors. To develop an accurate model, the water supply system has become more complicated and comprehensive structures. Future uncertainty also has been considered to improve system reliability as well as economic feasibility.In this study, a general large-scale water supply system that is comprised of modular components was developed in a dynamic simulation environment. Several possible scenarios were simulated in a realistic hypothetical system. In addition to water balances and quality analyses, construction and operation of system components costs were estimated for each scenario. One set of results demonstrates that construction of small-cluster decentralized wastewater treatment systems could be more economical than a centralized plant when communities are spatially scattered or located in steep areas.The Shuffled Frog Leaping Algorithm (SFLA), then, is used to minimize the total system cost of the general water supply system. Decisions are comprised of sizing decisions - pipe diameter, pump design capacity and head, canal capacity, and water/wastewater treatment capabilities - and flow allocations over the water supply network. An explicit representation of energy consumption cost for the operation is incorporated into the system in the optimization process of overall system cost. Although the study water supply systems included highly nonlinear terms in the objective function and constraints, a stochastic search algorithm was applied successfully to find optimal solutions that satisfied all the constraints for the study networks.Finally, a robust optimization approach was introduced into the design process of a water supply system as a framework to consider uncertainties of the correlated future data. The approach allows for the control of the degree of conservatism which is a crucial factor for the system reliabilities and economical feasibilities. The system stability is guaranteed under the most uncertain condition and it was found that the water supply system with uncertainty can be a useful tool to assist decision makers to develop future water supply schemes.

Les rejets de station d'épuration (STEP) sont considérés comme un vecteur majeur d'entrée des micropolluants dans les milieux aquatiques. Certains micropolluants, fortement présents dans les eaux à traiter ou trop faiblement éliminés par les filières de traitement, sont ainsi retrouvés dans les eaux usées traitées à des concentrations pouvant atteindre plusieurs centaines de ng/L. Ce travail de recherche vise à identifier et simuler les processus d'élimination de micropolluants au sein du procédé à boues activées en aération prolongée, procédé le plus couramment utilisé en France. Nous nous sommes intéressés à 53 micropolluants, dont l'élimination de la file eau par le procédé à boues activées n'est que partielle (rendement compris entre 30 et 70 % selon AMPERES). Cinq familles de substances aux propriétés physico-chimiques différentes ont ainsi été étudiées : 11 métaux, 14 composés pharmaceutiques, 19 hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques, 5 alkylphénols, 4 pesticides. L'objectif de la démarche expérimentale proposée a consisté à identifier et caractériser les principaux mécanismes d'élimination. Ces mécanismes ont été étudiés à deux échelles d'observation, échelle industrielle (STEP vraie grandeur) et une échelle pilote. Le suivi d'un procédé boues à activées au sein d'une STEP (2900 EH) a permis de réaliser 8 bilans matières (file eau et file globale) répartis sur une année. Nous avons ainsi mesuré les variations de concentrations des micropolluants ciblés dans les eaux usées brutes, les eaux usées traitées et les boues, ainsi que les variations de performances d'élimination suivant les conditions de fonctionnement de la STEP (température, durée de présence d'oxygène, taux de MES). Les essais à l'échelle pilote en réacteur fermé ont permis de déterminer les coefficients de sorption et les constantes cinétiques de biodégradation de ces micropolluants en conditions contrôlées. La biodégradation de ces micropolluants a été évaluée pour différentes conditions opératoires relatives aux conditions rédox (aérobie et anoxie) et à différentes conditions de substrat (absence de substrat biodégradable, présence de substrat biodégradable carboné et azoté, présence de substrat azoté seulement). Un modèle dynamique calé est proposé, décrivant le comportement des micropolluants dans les phases dissoute et particulaire. Le paramétrage est obtenu à partir des données expérimentales, à savoir les coefficients de sorption et de biodégradation déterminés en réacteur fermé et des performances d'élimination mesurées pour la STEP. / Discharges from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) are considered as a major input of micropollutants in the aquatic environment. Some micropollutants are found in treated wastewater at concentrations of several hundred ng/L, due to their high concentration in the raw wastewater or to their low removal by WWTP. This work proposes to model the fate of micropollutants in the activated sludge with extended aeration process, most commonly used in France. We investigated 53 micropollutants, particularly those partially removed from the water line by activated sludge process (between 30 and 70% according to the AMPERES project). Five families of substances with different physicochemical properties were studied: 11 metals, 14 pharmaceutical compounds, 19 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 5 alkylphenols and 4 pesticides. The objective of the experimental strategy is to characterize the two main removal mechanisms: sorption and biodegradation. It combines a study of a process at WWTP scale and tests at laboratory scale. We have monitored an activated sludge process to achieve eight mass balances (water line and global line) for a year. We have characterized variations of concentration in raw wastewater, treated wastewater and sludge as well as variations in removal efficiency depending on operating conditions. Laboratory scale tests were used to determine sorption coefficients and kinetic biodegradation constants of micropollutants in monitored conditions. We evaluated biodegradation kinetics in different redox conditions (aerobic and anoxic) and different substrate conditions (absence of biodegradable substrate, presence of biodegradable substrate carbon and nitrogen, presence of substrate nitrogen only). The model describing the fate of dissolved and particulate phases is calibrated from sorption and biodegradation constants and removal efficiencies observed for the activated sludge process at WWTP scale.

Major studies conducted in Europe and North America has concluded that the current processes in wastewater treatment plants insufficiently degrade micropollutants e.g. pharmaceutical residues. Several sorption and oxidation methods has therefore been investigated with the purpose of removing or degrading micropollutants in wastewater. The main purpose of this project was, firstly, to validate the results from a pilot study conducted by Tekniska verken i Linköping AB (2014) which investigated the use of ozone to degrade pharmaceutical residues. Secondly, to investigate and design a suitable process control strategy for the ozonation process. Four different tests were conducted during the project, a dose-response test, step-response tests, a trace test, and a performance test. A poorer average reduction of pharmaceutical residues was observed in this project compared to the pilot study. An average reduction of approximately 80% was observed at the highest tested dose, 0.67 mg O3/mg DOC, N corr. Whilst an average reduction of 90% was observed at approximately 0.46 mg O3/mg DOC, N corr, in the pilot study. However, the quality of the wastewater was worse during this project compared to the pilot study. ΔUVA254 and offgas concentration of ozone were found to be suitable control parameters for process control. A control strategy based on a combination of these parameters was designed, where ΔUVA254 was used as the main control parameter and the off-gas concentration of ozone was used as a limiting controller to ensure a sufficient mass transfer in the system. In conclusion, a suitable flow proportional base ozone dose valid for current water conditions has been identified, 10 mg/L. Differences in wastewater quality which heavily influence the ozonation process have been identified. Lastly, a control strategy for process control of the ozonation have been identified, designed and is ready for implementation.

Os esgotos sanitários concentram compostos que são interferentes endócrinos. Os tratamentos de esgotos convencionais por sistema de lodos ativados podem não remover totalmente estes compostos, os quais atingem os ecossistemas aquáticos e oferecem riscos ecológicos e à saúde humana. Neste trabalho, mediu-se a atividade estrogênica de compostos presentes em esgotos brutos, tratados e águas de reúso de duas estações de tratamento de esgotos (ETE) da região metropolitana de São Paulo, que operam por sistema de tratamento por lodos ativados e produzem águas de reúso para fins não potáveis por tratamento físico-químico. Nesse procedimento, as amostras foram preparadas por extração de fase sólida e utilizou-se o bioensaio BLYES (Bioluminescence Yeast Estrogen Screen) para a quantificação de efeito de atividade estrogênica em nanogramas de 17-estradiol equivalente (ng-EEQ/L). A estrogenicidade da amostra foi calculada por meio da EC50 (concentração efetiva em 50%), para isto foram utilizadas diluições seriadas para curva padrão com 17-estradiol e para cada amostra analisada. A toxicidade nos ensaios foi medida e monitorada pela levedura controle BLYR. A atividade estrogênica no esgoto bruto variou de 14,7 a 52,6 ng-EEQ/L Os resultados em esgotos tratados por sistema de lodos ativados variaram de abaixo o limite de quantificação do bioensaio de < 0,10 ng-EEQ/L a 11ng-EEQ/L, indicando eficiência de remoção entre 50% a 100%. As águas de reúso foram produzidas por filtração e cloração e na maioria dos resultados apresentaram atividade estrogênica de <0,10 ng-EEQ/L. Os resultados obtidos neste estudo foram comparáveis aos encontrados na literatura medidos pelo bioensaio YES. Os resultados demonstraram que o bioensaio BLYES foi viável para quantificar a estrogenicidade em todas as amostras testadas. As evidências acerca da atividade estrogênica das águas estudadas podem subsidiar ações integradas na gestão da qualidade das águas, o aprimoramento de condições operacionais e tecnológicas das ETEs / The wastewater concentrates compounds with endocrine disruptors. The conventional wastewater treatment by activated sludge are not able to completely remove these compounds, whose achieve aquatic ecosystems and offer ecologic risks and to human health. In this study we measured estrogenic activity on raw and treated wastewater and reclaimed water from two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the metropolitan region of São Paulo. These WWTPs treat wastewater by activated sludge process and produce reclaimed water for non potable purposes by physical chemical processes. By this procedure, the samples were collected on both WWTPs before and after described treatments and they were prepared by solid phase extraction (SPE). The samples after SPE were analyzed by the BLYES (Bioluminescence Yeast Estrogen Screen) bioassay for quantifying estrogenic activity measured by nanograms 17-estradiol equivalent per litre (ng-EEQ/L). The estrogenicity of sample was calculated by EC50 (half maximal effective concentration), for that were applied serial dilutions to 17-estradiol standard curve and for each sample. They were implemented serial dilutions for monitoring samples toxicity by BLYR yeast control. The estrogenic activity on raw wastewater ranged by 14,7 to 52,6 ng-EEQ/L. The treated wastewater by activated sludge presented results below the quantification of assay limit of < 0,10 ng-EEQ/L to 11ng-EEQ/L, indicating removal efficiency between 50% to 100%. The reclaimed water was produced by chlorination and filtration and presented results of estrogenic activity of < 0,10 ng-EEQ/L on majority analyzed samples. The results showed that BLYES bioassay was viable to quantify estrogenicity in all tested samples. The evidences on estrogenic activity in studied waters may offer subsidies for integrated actions on water quality management, improvements on operational conditions and technologies of WWTPs

Os esgotos sanitários concentram compostos que são interferentes endócrinos. Os tratamentos de esgotos convencionais por sistema de lodos ativados podem não remover totalmente estes compostos, os quais atingem os ecossistemas aquáticos e oferecem riscos ecológicos e à saúde humana. Neste trabalho, mediu-se a atividade estrogênica de compostos presentes em esgotos brutos, tratados e águas de reúso de duas estações de tratamento de esgotos (ETE) da região metropolitana de São Paulo, que operam por sistema de tratamento por lodos ativados e produzem águas de reúso para fins não potáveis por tratamento físico-químico. Nesse procedimento, as amostras foram preparadas por extração de fase sólida e utilizou-se o bioensaio BLYES (Bioluminescence Yeast Estrogen Screen) para a quantificação de efeito de atividade estrogênica em nanogramas de 17-estradiol equivalente (ng-EEQ/L). A estrogenicidade da amostra foi calculada por meio da EC50 (concentração efetiva em 50%), para isto foram utilizadas diluições seriadas para curva padrão com 17-estradiol e para cada amostra analisada. A toxicidade nos ensaios foi medida e monitorada pela levedura controle BLYR. A atividade estrogênica no esgoto bruto variou de 14,7 a 52,6 ng-EEQ/L Os resultados em esgotos tratados por sistema de lodos ativados variaram de abaixo o limite de quantificação do bioensaio de < 0,10 ng-EEQ/L a 11ng-EEQ/L, indicando eficiência de remoção entre 50% a 100%. As águas de reúso foram produzidas por filtração e cloração e na maioria dos resultados apresentaram atividade estrogênica de <0,10 ng-EEQ/L. Os resultados obtidos neste estudo foram comparáveis aos encontrados na literatura medidos pelo bioensaio YES. Os resultados demonstraram que o bioensaio BLYES foi viável para quantificar a estrogenicidade em todas as amostras testadas. As evidências acerca da atividade estrogênica das águas estudadas podem subsidiar ações integradas na gestão da qualidade das águas, o aprimoramento de condições operacionais e tecnológicas das ETEs / The wastewater concentrates compounds with endocrine disruptors. The conventional wastewater treatment by activated sludge are not able to completely remove these compounds, whose achieve aquatic ecosystems and offer ecologic risks and to human health. In this study we measured estrogenic activity on raw and treated wastewater and reclaimed water from two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the metropolitan region of São Paulo. These WWTPs treat wastewater by activated sludge process and produce reclaimed water for non potable purposes by physical chemical processes. By this procedure, the samples were collected on both WWTPs before and after described treatments and they were prepared by solid phase extraction (SPE). The samples after SPE were analyzed by the BLYES (Bioluminescence Yeast Estrogen Screen) bioassay for quantifying estrogenic activity measured by nanograms 17-estradiol equivalent per litre (ng-EEQ/L). The estrogenicity of sample was calculated by EC50 (half maximal effective concentration), for that were applied serial dilutions to 17-estradiol standard curve and for each sample. They were implemented serial dilutions for monitoring samples toxicity by BLYR yeast control. The estrogenic activity on raw wastewater ranged by 14,7 to 52,6 ng-EEQ/L. The treated wastewater by activated sludge presented results below the quantification of assay limit of < 0,10 ng-EEQ/L to 11ng-EEQ/L, indicating removal efficiency between 50% to 100%. The reclaimed water was produced by chlorination and filtration and presented results of estrogenic activity of < 0,10 ng-EEQ/L on majority analyzed samples. The results showed that BLYES bioassay was viable to quantify estrogenicity in all tested samples. The evidences on estrogenic activity in studied waters may offer subsidies for integrated actions on water quality management, improvements on operational conditions and technologies of WWTPs

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent organic pollutants known for their toxicological effects. Though industrial production of legacy PCBs was banned in 1977, they can still be measured in nearly all environmental matrices. The Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal (CSSC) is lined with industry and the receiving waters to the Stickney Water Reclamation Plant, the World's largest waste water treatment plant and was therefore speculated to be a potential source of PCBs to the Greater Chicago Area. Surficial sediment samples were acquired along a 45 km stretch of the CSSC, from Kedzie Ave. to Lockport. PCBs in the bulk sediment were extracted using accelerated solvent extraction while PCBs in the porewater were extracted using solid phase micro extraction. The PCBs were identified and quantified using a variation on EPA method 1668C. A total of 176 individual and coeluting PCBs were identified and quantified in this study. The sum of PCB concentrations in the bulk sediment was found to range from 70 to 4970 ng/g dry wt. The sum of PCB concentrations in the freely dissolved sediment-porewater was found to range from 2 to 366 ng/L. The bulk and porewater concentrations were used to estimate an average mass flow rate of PCBs through the CSSC of 368 kg/y. The large mass flow rate of PCBs passing through the CSSC and the fact that the CSSC connects Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River suggest that continued monitoring of PCB concentrations are necessary to better understand the transport and fate of PCBs in and out of the Great Chicago Area.

A large part of the antibiotics consumed ends up in wastewater, and in the wastewater the antibiotics may exert selective pressure for or maintain resistance among microorganisms. Antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes encoding antibiotic resistance are commonly detected in wastewater, often at higher rates and concentrations compared to surface water. Wastewater can also provide favourable conditions for the growth of a diverse bacterial community, which constitutes a basis for the selection and spread of antibiotic resistance. Therefore, wastewater treatment plants have been suggested to play a role in the dissemination and development of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a large problem worldwide as a nosocomial pathogen, but knowledge is limited about occurrence in non-clinical environments, such as wastewater, and what role wastewater plays in dissemination and development of MRSA.   In this thesis we investigated the occurrence of MRSA in a full-scale wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). We also investigated the concentration of genes encoding resistance to aminoglycosides (aac(6’)-Ie+aph(2’’)), β-lactam antibiotics (mecA) and tetracyclines (tetA and tetB) in three wastewater-associated environments: (1) soil from an overland flow area treating landfill leachates, (2) biofilm from a municipal wastewater treatment plant, and (3) sludge from a hospital wastewater pipeline. In addition, concentrations of mecA, tetA and tetB were investigated over the treatment process in the WWTP. These investigations were performed to determine how the prevalence and concentration of MRSA and the antibiotic resistence genes are affected in wastewater and wastewater treatment processes over time. The occurrence of MRSA was investigated by cultivation and a commercially available real-time PCR assay. In order to determine concentrations of the genes aac(6’)-Ie+aph(2’’), mecA, tetA and tetB in wastewater we developed a LUXTM real-time PCR assay for each gene.   Using cultivation and real-time PCR we could for the first time describe the occurrence of MRSA in wastewater and show that it had a stable occurrence over time in a WWTP. MRSA could mainly be detected in the early treatment steps in the WWTP, and the wastewater treatment process reduced the number and diversity of cultivated MRSA. However, our results also indicate that the treatment process selects for strains with more extensive resistance and possibly higher virulence. The isolated wastewater MRSA strains were shown to have a close genetic relationship to clinical isolates, and no specific wastewater lineages could be detected, indicating that they are a reflection of carriage in the community. Taken together, these data indicate that wastewater may be a potential reservoir for MRSA and that MRSA are more prevalent in wastewater than was previously thought.   The real-time PCR assays, for aac(6’)-Ie+aph(2’’), mecA, tetA, and tetB that we developed, were shown to be sensitive, fast, and reproducible methods for detection and quantification of these genes in wastewater environments. The highest concentrations of all genes were observed in the hospital pipeline, and the lowest in the overland flow system, with tetA and aac(6´)-Ie+aph(2´´) detected in all three environments. In the full-scale WWTP, we continuously detected mecA, tetA and tetB over the treatment process and over time. In addition, it was shown that the treatment process reduces concentrations of all three genes. The data presented in this thesis also indicate that the reduction for all three genes may be connected to the removal of biomass, and in the reduction of tetA and tetB, sedimentation and precipitation appear to play an important role.

As a modern metropolis, Shanghai has a registered population of 18.8 million in 2011, and the permanent population has been more than 20 million. As a result, Shanghai produces more than 6.3 million cubic meters of sewage per day which is considered as a massive test for Shanghai’s sewerage treatment system. Given the high proportion of time spent on the literature review, this study has investigated how the whole system works in Shanghai. To do this, Shanghai sewerage systems were divided into two parts – the drainage system and the sewage treatment system, and they were introduced respectively following the track of history development process. It was done by combining previously published theses, study reports, governmental documents, overt information by companies and news reports. It showed that, in 2009, Shanghai’s government established a basic formation of six centralized sewage treatment systems in co-existence with 52 sewage treatment plants. In the same year, the sewage treatment rate reached 78.9%, which can be considered a leap compared with the 62.8% figure in 2003. In spite of that, the gap between sewage treatment in Shanghai and that in developed countries still exists. By comparing Shanghai Bai Longgang sewage treatment plant with Halmstad Västra Stranden's waste water treatment plant, it can be concluded that the gap was embodied in differences of inflow condition, relative low discharge standards and poor treatment capability.