This Thesis had as objectives to study the hydration process of grains with sigmoidal behavior, evaluating ultrasound technology to improve it, the possible effects on germination, cooking and a possible incorporation of nutrients. The work was developed in three parts. The first part consisted of describing the hydration kinetics of many grains to have a data bank of hydration kinetics, allowing further selections. Furthermore, this part compared the differences among grains hydration kinetics, associating them with the intrinsic properties of the grains and questioning some inferences previously published in the literature. The second part was related to study the effect of ultrasound on the hydration kinetics of grains with sigmoidal behavior, being studied Andean lupin, mung beans and white kidney beans. Further, the effect of ultrasound in combination with soaking water at high temperatures was studied to demonstrate if they have additive, synergic or antagonist effect. The effect of ultrasound technology was evaluated in the water uptake, extraction of components, germination and cooking kinetics. The third part consisted of studying and describing the incorporation of a nutrient inside the grains, taking advantage of the hydration process. Further, ultrasound was used to improve this incorporation. The main results of this work corroborate that the hydration process is a complex phenomenon, and many intrinsic properties of the grains causes the kinetics differences. In addition, the fact that only legume grains have sigmoidal behavior of hydration was proved. Further, the ultrasound accelerated the hydration process of grains with sigmoidal behavior without affecting the grain starch, improving the extraction of undesirable components, enhancing or hindering the germination (depending on the grain), but without affecting the cooking process. Another result was that the higher the soaking water temperature is, the lower the ultrasound effect on hydration is. Finally, regarding nutrient incorporation, a hydrophilic nutrient (iron) was incorporated in a grain during hydration process demonstrating that it is possible. The iron incorporation had the same behavior as the water uptake, suggesting similar mechanisms and phenomena of mass flow. In addition, the incorporated iron was attached not only to the bean cotyledon, but also mostly in the seed coat. Furthermore, ultrasound technology enhanced this process. The cooking process of the studied grains was improved, and its germination was hindered by the incorporated iron. In conclusion, ultrasound technology can be used for improving the hydration process of grains with sigmoidal behavior, being also practical for nutrient incorporation into grains. / A presente Tese teve como objetivos estudar o processo de hidratação de grãos com comportamento sigmoidal de hidratação, avaliar a tecnologia de ultrassom para a sua melhora, os possíveis efeitos na germinação, cozimento e possível incorporação de nutrientes. O trabalho foi feito em três etapas. A primeira etapa consistiu em realizar uma prospecção de hidratação de diversos grãos, auxiliando na escolha dos futuros grãos a serem estudados. Ainda, comparou-se as cinéticas de hidratação associando-as com as propriedades intrínsecas dos grãos, avaliando diversas inferências publicadas sobre o processo. Na segunda etapa estudou-se o efeito do ultrassom de alta potência no processo de hidratação de três grãos com comportamento sigmoidal: tremoço andino, feijão moyashi e feijão branco. Também foi avaliado o efeito combinado do ultrassom e a temperatura da água de hidratação. O efeito da tecnologia de ultrassom foi avaliado na cinética de absorção de água, extração de compostos, germinação e cozimento. A terceira etapa consistiu em aproveitar o longo tempo do processo de hidratação para incorporar um nutriente hidrossolúvel dentro do grão. O ultrassom foi também usado para acelerar este processo. Os resultados mais importantes da Tese foram que se corroborou que a hidratação de grãos é um processo complexo e que há muita dificuldade em correlacionar as propriedades intrínsecas dos grãos com as características da hidratação. Ainda, foi demonstrado que o comportamento sigmoidal de hidratação é somente encontrado em grãos da família das leguminosas. Também foi demostrado que o ultrassom acelera a hidratação de grãos com comportamento sigmoidal e que esta tecnologia não afeta o amido dos grãos, melhora ou piora a germinação (dependendo do grão), e não afeta o cozimento. Corroborou-se que quanto maior a temperatura da água, menor é o efeito do ultrassom na cinética de hidratação. Finalmente, demonstrou-se que é possível incorporar nutrientes solúveis dentro dos grãos, aproveitando assim o longo tempo de hidratação. Encontrou-se que a incorporação de nutrientes segue mecanismo similar que a entrada de água, e que pode ser acelerado usando ultrassom. Também, foi demonstrado que o ferro foi incorporado no cotilédone e no tegumento (em maior quantidade), e que este composto melhora o cozimento do feijão, porém prejudica a sua germinação. Em conclusão, o ultrassom pode ser usado para melhorar o processo de hidratação de grãos e para a incorporação de algum nutriente.

abstract: Exposure to sun radiation (SUR) with ambient temperature may be an influencer on athletes’ sweat loss in different environments, but the results are not currently known. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of SUR on fluid balance (FB) and hydration status (HS) in athletes exercising indoors and outdoors. Initial FB and HS were assessed in NCAA-DI female soccer athletes (n=10) of a single team in temperate, dry conditions (55-68°F, 18-48% humidity) who were monitored during 3 practices of equal estimated energy expenditure (EE): two outdoors in direct SUR (cold/moderate temperatures) and one indoors without SUR (moderate temperatures). Humidity, temperature, and wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT – a measurement partly based on SUR, including ambient temperature/relative humidity) were recorded using Heat Stress Meters placed in the direct sun or in the shade. Each athlete’s semi-nude dry body weight was recorded before and after exercise. Urine samples were taken before, after, and the morning after. Urine specific gravity (USG) was tested to assess HS. Athletes wore combined heart rate and activity monitors to estimate EE and were provided ad libitum water and/or a zero-calorie sports drink. Their total intake included weights of consumed food and drink. Sweat rate was calculated using body weight change and intakes of liquids minus urine losses/hour. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA analyzed group-level differences. No significance was found in total FB (1.01±0.32 L/hr) or EE/hr (444±97.1 kcal/hr) across all days (p>0.05). In analyzing individual athlete results, 40% had consistent USG >1.025 (p=0.001) suggesting potential dehydration. These 4 athletes selected water as their beverage, of which is known that consuming only water does not stimulate drinking behavior as does electrolyte drinks. The remaining 60% were overall not dehydrated (USG <1.025) but must be aware of incidental dehydration in hotter temperatures. The conclusion is that in low-moderate temperatures, athletes self-regulate drinking habits and achieve fluid balance during exercise with or without sun radiation. However, athletes with average USG >1.025 are likely to remain dehydrated in moderate temperatures. The findings suggest that more education would benefit these athletes by ensuring hydration in any environment. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Nutrition 2019

The layered structure and bulk composition of continental crust contains important clues about its history of mountain-building, about its magmatic evolution, and about dynamical processes that continue to happen now. Geophysical and geological features such as gravity anomalies, surface topography, lithospheric strength and the deformation that drives the earthquake cycle are all directly related to deep crustal chemistry and the movement of materials through the crust that alter that chemistry. The North American continental crust records billions of years of history of tectonic and dynamical changes. The western U.S. is currently experiencing a diverse array of dynamical processes including modification by the Yellowstone hotspot, shortening and extension related to Pacific coast subduction and transform boundary shear, and plate interior seismicity driven by flow of the lower crust and upper mantle. The midcontinent and eastern U.S. is mostly stable but records a history of ancient continental collision and rifting. EarthScope’s USArray seismic deployment has collected massive amounts of data across the entire United States that illuminates the deep continental crust, lithosphere and deeper mantle. This study uses EarthScope data to investigate the thickness and composition of the continental crust, including properties of its upper and lower layers. One-layer and two-layer models of crustal properties exhibit interesting relationships to the history of North American continental formation and recent tectonic activities that promise to significantly improve our understanding of the deep processes that shape the Earth’s surface. Model results show that seismic velocity ratios are unusually low in the lower crust under the western U.S. Cordillera. Further modeling of how chemistry affects the seismic velocity ratio at temperatures and pressures found in the lower crust suggests that low seismic velocity ratios occur when water is mixed into the mineral matrix, and the combination of high temperature and water may point to small amounts of melt in the lower crust of Cordillera.

This dissertation investigates the importance of diffusional and convective fluxes for salts in reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes. Moreover, the physical and thermodynamic factors controlling the salt permeability are analyzed. The study utilizes direct osmosis (DO) experiments and RO experiments, the later using both flat sheet and spiral wound membrane configurations. The salts considered are chlorides and acetates of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals. The equation governing the salt transport in DO experiments is derived and a phenomenon inverse to concentration polarization in RO is observed. The salt permeability in DO is equal to the salt permeability calculated for the valid cases of the used RO models. DO is suggested as an alternative method in characterizing the salt transport in membranes. The method can be more advantageous than RO due to the lower costs and simplicity of the apparatus. The models used to calculate the salt transport parameters in RO experiments are Spiegler-Kedem model, which considers both diffusion and convection of salt, and Kimura-Sourirajan model, which considers only diffusion of salt. It is found that diffusion is the dominant mechanism of transport in both RO and NF membranes. The percentage of the salt diffusional flux of the total flux is highest for seawater membranes and it is approximately equal for brackish water and nanofiltration membranes. The salt diffusive flux contribute more to the total flux for the 1:2 salts than for 1:1 salts. The two RO models are found equivalent in determining the salt permeability for only the seawater membranes. The Kimura-Sourirajan model overestimates the salt permeability coefficient for salts with rejection coefficient lower than 86%. The permeation rates for studied salts follow the lyotropic series regardless the membrane type (RO or NF), the membrane configuration (flat sheet or spiral wound), the process (DO or RO), or the models used for the calculations. This order of salt permeability is explained by the hydration of the cations, which is quantified by the enthalpy and entropy of hydration. The relative free energy theory can also be used to predict the salt permeability in a membrane based on preliminary data.

L'objectif de ce travail a été d'apporter une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes réactionnels de l'hydratation de ciments appartenant à la famille de ciment BCSAF afin de développer des schémas réactionnels simplifiés permettant d'optimiser les ciments à base d'un clinker BCSAF et d'autres constituants pour des applications spécifiques. Les ciments étudiés ont été réalisés à partir d'un clinker contenant 52% de belite, 33% de ye'elimite and 14% de ferrite et diverses quantités d'anhydrite et de calcaire. A partir de l'étude détaillée de l'hydratation d'un ciment contenant 95% de clinker et 5% d'anhydrite, il a été démontré que le mécanisme de l'hydratation est constitué de deux périodes successives : le début de l'hydratation est contrôlé par l'hydratation de la ye'elimite réagissant avec l'anhydrite, tandis que la suite de l'hydratation est contrôlée par les hydratations de la belite et de la ferrite qui réagissent avec certains des hydrates formés lors de la première période. La vitesse de nucléation de la strätlingite contrôle le début de l'hydratation de la belite. Le principal paramètre qui contrôle cette dernière est la concentration en sulfate de la phase aqueuse qui doit être très faible. Ainsi C-S-H n'est pas formé au début de l'hydratation de la belite parce qu'elle n'est pas saturé à cause de faible concentration de calcium et silicon et sa formation est retardé plus tard à cause de l'inhibition de sa nucléation par de trop fortes quantités d'aluminate en solution. Par conséquence, c'est indirectement la concentration en sulfate de la solution qui contrôle le début de l'hydratation de la belite and ainsi les réactions conduisant à sa réduction à travers la précipitation de phase notamment lors de l'hydratation de la ye'elimite pour former de l'ettringite. Ainsi d'une façon générale, la strätlingite commence à nucléer quand la ye'elimite a complètement réagi. D'autre part, une synergie entre les hydratations de la belite et de la ferrite permet de former des hydrogrenats et des C-S-H à des temps longs au détriment de la strätlingite formée auparavant. Un mécanisme d'hydratation similaire a été trouvé pour les ciments contenant des quantités plus importantes d'anhydrite à l'exception de ceux qui contiennent une quantité d'anhydrite supérieure que la quantité théorique permettant de faire réagir toute la ye'elimite en ettringite. Toutefois pour le premier type de ciments, une augmentation de la quantité d'anhydrite allonge à la fois le temps d'apparition de la seconde période et la durée des différentes étapes de cette dernière. Donc l'hydratation est globalement plus lente. Pour le second type de ciment, contenant de fortes quantités d'anhydrite, le mécanisme d'hydratation est assez différent car l'hydratation de la belite commence dès le début de l'hydratation et conduit à la formation, soit d'ettringite contenant Si, soit de C-S-H. L'effet de 15% de calcaire a également été étudié pour le ciment contenant 95% de clinker et 5% d'anhydrite. Les résultats ont montré que le calcaire ne change pas la première période de l'hydratation mettant en jeu principalement la ye'elimite et l'anhydrite. Par contre la seconde période, durant laquelle la belite et la ferrite s'hydratent, est fortement retardée à son début. Ceci peut être dû à un retard de la nucléation de la strätlingite à cause de concentrations en sulfate de la solution restant plus longtemps élevées par le fait que l'ettringite est stabilisée en présence de carbonate par la formation de phases AFm carbonatées qui inhibent la formation de monosulfoaluminate de calcium hydraté. Pour finir, des perspectives sont données notamment afin de réduire la durée de la première période de l'hydratation et ainsi permettre un démarrage plus rapide de l'hydratation de la belite et de la ferrite.

<p>In this project the aim has been to study the model protein carbonic anhydrase in Neisseria gonorrhoeae, a bacterium whose carbonic anhydrase has great similarities both structurally and functionally with the human form. By measuring and comparing the wild type of NGCA with mutants lacking one of the four tryptophan residues it can be seen what effect these tryptophans has on stability and activity and then compare with the known data of HCA II to learn more about their differences and similarities. The results from the stability and activity measurements are that the wild type is by far the most stable protein with W141L mutant coming thereafter.</p><p>From Trp-fluorescence and CO2-hydration measurement a clear two-transition steps (N→ I→ U) can be seen. This differs from earlier data where it instead only was a one-transition step for the wild type (N→U). The data is also very reliable and gives in most cases a perfect fit to the line. We also see this two-transition step for the other mutants stable enough, strengthening the theory further.</p><p>One fact that could be drawn from all the measurements is that when an intermediate is formed the ability for the enzyme NGCA to perform it’s catalytically ability is disabled.</p><p>Another thing is that the purification scheme of HCA II is not optimal to be directly applied to NGCA, despite the similarity in secondary and tertiary structure.</p>

Lichens can colonize nearly all terrestrial habitats on earth and are functionally important in many ecosystems. Being poikilohydric, their active growth periods are restricted to periods when the thallus is hydrated from atmospheric water sources, such as rain, fog and high relative humidity. Since lichen hydration varies greatly over time lichen growth is therefore more difficult to model compared with, for example vascular plants with more even water supply. I developed two models to predict lichen hydration under field conditions that incorporates the atmospheric water potential (Ψair), derived from air temperature and humidity, only or in combination with species-specific rehydration and desiccation rates. Using Ψair allows the prediction of hydration induced by several water sources. These models were very accurate for epiphytic lichens with a close coupling to atmospheric conditions, but they were less accurate for mat-forming lichens with substantial aerodynamic boundary layers. The hydration model was further developed to include photosynthetic activation for different species, in order to compare their performance under different micro-climatic scenarios. Water balance and activation rate had large effects on lichen activity and were positively related to habitats providing long hydration periods, for example close to streams. To study effects of climate change, a complete model for net carbon gain (photosynthesis minus respiratory losses) was developed for an epiphytic lichen with intricate responses to light, hydration and temperature. Simulation responses in different climate scenarios revealed that projected climate change on a regional scale resulted in varied local scale responses. At the lighter, exposed sites of a forest, the growth responses were positive, but were potentially negative at darker sites with closed canopy. At the local scale, fluctuating hydration, summed irradiance when wet and Chlorophyll a are variables that predict lichen growth. However, at a landscape scale, these variables may be too detailed. We tested this for two terrestrial, mat-forming lichens and developed statistical models for lichen growth in the widest possible climatic gradient in northern Scandinavia, varying in light, temperature and precipitation. Light was the most important factor for high growth at the landscape scale, reaching saturation at a site openness of 40 %, equivalent to a basal tree area of 15 m2 ha -1 in this study. Thereafter, hydration was the next limiting factor, which could be well described by precipitation for one of the species. The simplest predictor was the normal temperature in July, which was negatively correlated with growth. It was apparent that the predictive variables and their power varied at different scales. However, light and hydration are limiting at all scales, particularly by light conditions when lichens are wet. This implies that ensuring that there is sufficient light below the forest canopy is crucial for lichen growth, especially for mat-forming lichens. Hydrophilic lichens may be better preserved in open habitats with long hydration periods. It was shown that models can be powerful and “easy to use” tools to predict lichen responses in various habitats and under different climate scenarios. Models can therefore help to identify suitable habitats with optimal growth conditions, which is very important for the conservation and management of lichens and their habitats. / Lavar kan kolonisera nästan alla terrestriska habitat i världen och är funktionellt viktiga i många ekosystem. Eftersom lavar är poikilohydriska (växelblöta), är deras aktiva tillväxtperioder begränsade till den tid då bålen är blöt från atmosfäriska vattenkällor, såsom regn, dimma och hög relativ fuktighet. Eftersom lavars vatteninnehåll varierar stort över tid är lavars tillväxt svårare att modellera jämfört med till exempel kärlväxter, med en mer jämn vattentillgång. Jag har utvecklat två fuktmodeller som förutsäger lavars vatteninnehåll i fält. Modellerna använder den atmosfäriska vattenpotentialen (Ψair), som erhålls från lufttemperatur och -fuktighet, antingen enbart eller i kombination med de artspecifika uppblötnings - och uttorkningshastigheterna. Genom att använda (Ψair) kan man förutsäga lavars vatteninnehåll från flera vattenkällor. Dessa modeller var mycket precisa för epifytiska lavar med en nära koppling till de atmosfäriska förhållandena, men fungerade mindre väl för mattlevande lavar med ett betydande gränsskikt. Fuktmodellen utvecklades ytterligare för att inkludera även fotosyntetisk aktivering av olika lavar, för att kunna jämföra deras aktivitet i olika mikroklimatiska scenarior. Vattenbalans och aktiveringshastighet hade stor effekt på på lavars aktivitet och var positivt relaterad till habitat med tillräckligt långa fuktperioder, till exempel habitat nära strömmande vatten. För att studera klimateffekter på lavar, utvecklade jag en total modell för nettoförvärv av kol (fotosyntes minus respiration) för en epifytisk lav med dess intrikata förhållande mellan ljus, fukt och temperatur. Simuleringar av modellen visade att lavens responser i förhållande till regionala klimatförändringar var kontrasterande på lokal nivå. Vid ljusa, öppna lokaler i skogen ökade tillväxten medan de potentiellt minskade vid mörka lokaler med ett mer slutet krontäcke. På den lokala skalan kan fluktuerande vatteninnehåll, summerat ljus när laven är blöt, och klorofyll a- innehåll förutsäga lavars tillväxt. Men, på en landskapsskala kan dessa variabler vara för detaljerade. Vi testade detta för två terrestriska, mattlevande lavar och utvecklade en statistisk modell för lavars tillväxt i en så stor klimatgradient som möjligt i norra Skandinavien genom att variera ljus, temperatur och nederbörd. Ljus var den viktigaste faktorn för att nå hög tillväxt på landskapsnivå där en mättnad nåddes vid 40 % öppenhet i skogen, som motsvarade en grundyta på 15 m2 ha -1 i den här studien. Fuktigheten var den näst viktigaste begränsande faktorn och kunde beskrivas väl med nederbörd för en av arterna. Den mest lättanvända faktorn var normaltemperaturen för juli månad, som i sin tur var negativt korrelerad till tillväxt. Det var tydligt att de prediktiva variablerna och deras förutsägande förmåga varierade med olika skalor. Ljus och fukt var begränsande på alla nivåer, speciellt av ljusförhållandena då lavarna är blöta. Detta innebär att tillräckligt höga ljusnivåer under krontäcket är avgörande för lavars tillväxt, speciellt mattlevande lavar. Hydrofila lavar torde bevaras bättre i öppna habitat med tillräckligt långa fuktperioder. Det var tydligt att modeller kan vara betydelsefulla och lättanvända verktyg för att förutsäga lavars responser i en bredd av habitat med olika mikroklimat. Modeller kan därför vara en hjälp för att identifiera lämpliga habitat med optimala tillväxtförhållanden och detta är viktigt för att bevara och sköta lavar och deras habitat.

In this project the aim has been to study the model protein carbonic anhydrase in Neisseria gonorrhoeae, a bacterium whose carbonic anhydrase has great similarities both structurally and functionally with the human form. By measuring and comparing the wild type of NGCA with mutants lacking one of the four tryptophan residues it can be seen what effect these tryptophans has on stability and activity and then compare with the known data of HCA II to learn more about their differences and similarities. The results from the stability and activity measurements are that the wild type is by far the most stable protein with W141L mutant coming thereafter. From Trp-fluorescence and CO2-hydration measurement a clear two-transition steps (N→ I→ U) can be seen. This differs from earlier data where it instead only was a one-transition step for the wild type (N→U). The data is also very reliable and gives in most cases a perfect fit to the line. We also see this two-transition step for the other mutants stable enough, strengthening the theory further. One fact that could be drawn from all the measurements is that when an intermediate is formed the ability for the enzyme NGCA to perform it’s catalytically ability is disabled. Another thing is that the purification scheme of HCA II is not optimal to be directly applied to NGCA, despite the similarity in secondary and tertiary structure.

A set of algorithms were designed, implemented and evaluated in order to, first, identifyclusters of conserved waters in binding pockets, i.e. hydration sites. Then, their contributionto the free energy of binding in a ligand-protein association was quantified by calculatingtheir enthalpy and entropy. The information obtained by using these algorithms couldcontribute to the development of new drugs by generating new ligands that target specifichigh-energy, unfavorable waters. Evaluation tests show that our algorithms can indeedprovide relevant data about how hydration sites influence ligand-protein binding.

The rheological properties of cement based grouts change with water/cement ratio and time, during the course of hydration. For this reason, it is desirable to be able to measure this change continuously, in-line, with a robust instrument during the entire grouting operation in the field. The rheological properties of commonly used cement grouts were determined using the Ultrasound Velocity Profiling combined with the Pressure Difference (UVP+PD) method. A non-model approach was used that directly provides the properties, and the results were compared with the properties obtained using the Bingham and Herschel-Bulkley rheological models. The results show that it is possible to determine the rheological properties, as well as variations with concentration and time, with this method. The UVP+PD method has been found to be an effective measuring device for velocity profile visualization, volumetric flow determination and the characteristics of the grout pump used. / <p>QS 2013</p>