Fluorinated polymers are niche macromolecules that play an essential role in modern life. The special properties of fluorine, including among others, a large electronegativity (ca 3.98), low polarisability, small van der Waal’s radius (135 pm) and the strong C-F bond (ca 485 kJ · mol−1), impart unique properties to organofluorine compounds. Flu-oropolymers exhibit a combination of desirable traits, including high thermal stability, low coefficient of friction, chemical inertness, oleo- and hydrophobicity, and low surface tension. Among the fluoropolymers, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), and copolymers of vinylidene fluoride (VDF) and hexafluoropropylene (HFP), have found applications in the coatings industry as the binder in exterior coatings. The chemical inertness of poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer, however, prevents disper-sion of pigments into the coating and also inhibits adhesion of the coating onto substrates. An acrylic modifier polymer is typically added to the poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer to improve the dispersion of pigments and the adhesion of the coating. This acrylic copoly-mer is physically blended with the poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer on a macromolecular scale (i.e. it forms a thermodynamically miscible blend). The loading of acrylic copolymer in commercial PVDF coatings is often in the range of 20 to 30 % by weight of polymer solids. Typically, copolymers of methyl methacrylate, ethyl acrylate and methacrylic esters are employed. Alternative strategies to overcome the adhesion problem include, among others, chem-ical modification of the surface of the fluoropolymer film. This can be achieved by graft copolymerisation or core shell emulsion polymerisation. These methods are used to funcionalise the polymer chains, while maintaining the desirable properties of the parent polymer. Due to environmental regulations, industry focus has shifted towards develop-ing coatings with a low volatile organic compound (VOC) content. Aqueous, low VOC, air-drying coatings can be formulated directly from the acrylic modified fluoropolymer (AMF) latex and have superior properties to solvent based, high VOC, air-dry coatings. Their advantages include low viscosities, reduced flammability, reduced odour and easy application using conventional equipment. A large portion of the aqueous coatings are sold into the architectural market with over 70 % of architectural paints used in the United States being classified as aqueous. Arkema Inc. has developed a commercial aqueous fluoropolymer latex using the method of seeded emulsion polymerisation. VDF and HFP monomers are randomly copolymerised via emulsion polymerisation. This poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer may be used as the seed material in a core-shell polymerisation using acrylic monomers. Kato et al. [49] discloses the preparation of an AMF formulation for poly(VDF-co-HFP) copoly-mer. Preliminary testing of membrane textiles coated with such formulations showed that the AMF coatings degrade under UV irradiation more rapidly than is is expected for poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer. The patent indicates that the nature of the product formed by the emulsion polymerisation is not well understood and the product my be either a graft copolymer of a core-shell system. The aim of this research reported in this dissertation was to shed light on the nature of the final product, and to verify the claims made in the above-mentioned patent. Various acrylic monomers were copolymerised via seeded emulsion polymerisation us-ing commercial poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer as the seed material. The concentration and the ratios of the monomers were varied according to the formulation guidelines in Kato et al.[49]. ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and19F NMR spectroscopy was used to de-termine the microstructure of the resultant latexes. ATR-FTIR spectra confirmed the presence of C=C and C=O bonds in latexes. This indicates that unreacted acrylic com-ponents are present. The ATR-FTIR spectra of the films indicated the disappearance of the C=C bonds from the latex, which indicates that the monomers are evaporated easily from the latexes during film formation. The 19F NMR spectra confirmed that no modi-fication of the poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer backbone took place during the reactions. The particle size distribution graphs showed an increase particle sizes and this suggested that some self polymerisation of the monomer occurred. The viscosity of the latexes were lower compared to the due to the experiments being conducted under dilution. The flow characteristics of the poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer was also influenced with some reactions yielding shear thickening latexes as compared to the shear thinning poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymerc. The reactions also yielded latexes which displayed lower and higher surface tensions than the poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer. Therefore, the conclusion may be drawn from this work that core-shell formation occurred during the emulsion copolymerisation, as opposed to grafting of the monomer onto the poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer backbone. The claims made in the literature could not be substantiated; in particluar, the reported improvements in film forming ability were not realised. No commercially useful advantage exists for the emulsion copolymerisation of poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer with acrylic monomers over the solution blending of poly(VDF-co-HFP) copolymer with acrylic copolymers. / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2019. / Chemical Engineering / MEng / Unrestricted

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde ein prinzipieller Zugang zur Mikroverkapselung anorganischer Latentwärmespeichermaterialien (LWS) erarbeitet. Dazu wurden zwei basische, kristallwasserreiche Salzhydrate mit Schmelztemperaturen im Umgebungstemperaturbereich als Kernmaterialien und anorganisch-organische Hybridpolymere mit kovalent verbundenen anorganischen und organischen Struktureinheiten (ORMOCER®e) als Verkapselungsmaterial verwendet. Der Prozess verläuft grenzflächenselektiv in der flüssigen Phase, initiiert durch die basischen LWS, in Form einer auch bei milden Temperaturen ablaufenden Michael-Typ-Addition zwischen Acrylat- (Acr) und Thiolmonomeren (SH). Optimierte Verkapselungsergebnisse wurden mit Hybridmonomeren erreicht, deren funktionelle Gruppen in einem unstöchiometrischen Verhältnis von Acr:SH ≈ 5:1 vorlagen und über das anorganische Rückgrat vorverknüpft waren. Bei Verwendung eines Mikrodosiersystems wurden gleichmäßige, geschlossene Mikrokapseln mit Durchmessern von etwa 40–50 µm bei Schichtdicken von < 5 µm erhalten. Aufgrund einer zu geringen inhärenten Barrierewirkung der verwendeten Hybridpolymere gegenüber Wasserdampf konnten jedoch erhebliche Kristallwasserverluste nicht verhindert werden, sodass die erhaltenen Mikrokapseln noch nicht zur Anwendung als LWS geeignet sind. Da die beobachtete Tolerierung und sogar Bevorzugung für das deutliche Missverhältnis zwischen den polymerisierenden Gruppen für eine Stufenpolymerisation sehr ungewöhnlich ist, wurden an Modellsystemen Untersuchungen zur Aufklärung des Reaktionsmechanismus vorgenommen. Dazu wurde zunächst ein Mercaptosiloxan (MS) hergestellt, dessen Ringgrößen- bzw. Funktionalitätsverteilung mittels 29Si-NMR- und GPC-Messungen sehr gut aufgeklärt werden konnte. Dieses wurde für Verkapselungsversuche mit Trimethylolpropantriacrylat (TMPTA) kombiniert und das Verhältnis funktioneller Gruppen Acr:SH systematisch variiert. An den erhaltenen Proben konnte via µ-Raman-Tiefenscan-Untersuchungen der Einfluss der Harzzusammensetzung auf die Kapselschichten aufgeklärt werden. Während bei Acr:SH = 1:1 maximale Schichtdicken erhalten wurden, ergaben sich bei Acrylatüberschuss von 4:1 bis 6:1 optimierte Schichten im Sinne der Vorgaben, die gleichmäßig dünn und vollständig waren. Bei Thiolüberschuss wurden dagegen keine vollständig ausgebildeten Schichten erhalten. Das für die LWS-Verkapselungen verwendete Modellsystem TMPTA/MS wurde zusätzlich in Volumenpolymerisationen in homogener organischer Phase untersucht, die mit der Base Triethylamin initiiert wurden. Dabei wurden die stöchiometriebezogenen Vergelungsgrenzen bestimmt. Die detektierte Grenze bei Acr:SH < 5:1 für Acrylatüberschuss lag signifikant unterhalb von Verhältnissen funktioneller Gruppen, für die in Verkapselungsversuchen noch geschlossene Schichten erhalten wurden. Entlang der flüssig-flüssig-Grenzfläche wird somit der Gelpunkt lokal innerhalb eines breiteren Bereichs des Verhältnisses funktioneller Gruppen in der Harzmischung erreicht, als bei einer Polymerisation im gesamten Volumen. Durch weitergehende Untersuchungen zum Vernetzungsverhalten in Abhängigkeit vom Verhältnis funktioneller Gruppen weiterer Acrylat- und Thiolmonomere mit anderen (durchschnittlichen) Funktionalitäten konnte das grundsätzliche Vorliegen eines Stufenmechanismus untermauert werden. Aus einer Kombination der Flory-Stockmayer-Theorie mit der Carothers’schen Gleichung konnten theoretische Vergelungsgrenzintervalle hergeleitet werden. Die experimentell bestimmten Vergelungsgrenzen standen in vollständiger Übereinstimmung mit den theoretisch errechneten Intervallen. Innerhalb des Modellsystems TMPTA/MS konnten zudem weitere Materialeigenschaften bestimmt und zusätzliche Erkenntnisse zum Vernetzungsverhalten gewonnen werden. Durch In-situ-Messungen mittels µ-Raman-Spektroskopie wurde die Entwicklung der Umsetzungsgrade N(C=C) und N(S–H) von Acrylat und Thiol im Verlauf der Reaktionszeit untersucht. Dabei wurden einige Einschränkungen der verwendeten Messmethode identifiziert und beschrieben. Mittels in-situ-mechanischer Spektroskopie nach Chambon und Winter konnte weiterhin das Vergelungsverhalten des Systems in Abhängigkeit von Monomerzusammensetzung, Initiatorkonzentration und Temperatur und Unterschiede innerhalb der kritischen Gele systematisch charakterisiert werden. Die stabilsten kritischen Gele und kürzesten Gelzeiten wurden für hohe Basenkonzentrationen und bei stöchiometrischem Monomerverhältnis, aber auch für Acrylatüberschuss bis Acr:SH = 3:1, erhalten. Damit konnte auch innerhalb der Volumenpolymerisationen eine Bevorzugung des untersuchten Monomersystems für Acrylatüberschuss nachgewiesen werden. Weiterhin wurde das Geschwindigkeitsgesetz der Reaktion aufgeklärt. Es ergab sich bis zum Gelpunkt, zu je erster Ordnung in den beiden Monomeren und der Initiatorbase. Außerdem wurde die Aktivierungsenthalpie der Polymerisation in homogener Phase mittels einer Arrhenius-Auftragung bestimmt. / In the framework of this thesis, an approach to the microencapsulation of inorganic phase change materials (PCM) was developed. Two alkaline salt hydrate mixtures with high amounts of crystal water and melting ranges at ambient temperature were chosen as core materials. These were encapsulated using hybrid polymers, i.e. materials with covalently connected inorganic and organic moieties (ORMOCER®s). The process developed proceeds as a Michael-type addition polymerization of thiol (SH) to acrylate (Acr) monomers, selectively under mild reaction conditions at the liquid-liquid interface, and it is initiated by the PCM core. Best encapsulation results were obtained using hybrid monomers with organic functional groups, being covalently linked via the inorganic backbone, at a ratio of Acr:SH ≈ 5:1. If a microdispenser was employed to dose the PCM, uniform and enclosed microcapsules of 40–50 µm diameter and < 5 µm coating thickness were produced. The achieved encapsulation performance is a promising improvement towards a hermetic microencapsulation of inorganic PCM. However, due to the inherently too high water vapor permeability of the employed hybrid polymers, the capsules loose water gradually. Therefore, this still inhibits an application as PCM materials for ambient temperatures. Since the preference for off-stoichiometric polymerizing groups which was found is exceptional for a step-growth polymerization, the reaction mechanism was further investigated using a model system. For that purpose, a mercaptosiloxane (MS) was synthesized, whose inorganic condensation was almost exhaustive, and the siloxane ring size and SH functionality distribution, respectively, was well ascertainable through 29Si-NMR and GPC measurements. This material was combined with trimethylolpropane triacrylate (TMPTA) for encapsulation experiments, and the ratio Acr:SH was systematically varied. The influence of the resins’ acrylate to thiol ratio on the encapsulation performance was elucidated by µ-Raman depth scan measurements of the resulting capsules. With a stoichiometric ratio of Acr:SH = 1:1, a maximum coating thickness was obtained, but a significant acrylate excess of about Acr:SH = 4:1 to 6:1 yielded optimized results with respect to the applications requirements: even, thin, and complete coatings. In contrast, no homogeneous coatings were attained with thiol excess in the material. The model system TMPTA/MS was also employed for bulk polymerizations in a homogeneous organic medium, initiated by triethylamine, which allowed the detection of the critical molar ratios (CMR) of TMPTA/MS. The experimental CMR for acrylate excess at Acr:SH < 5:1 was significantly lower than molar ratios that allowed complete PCM capsule coatings. Therefore, the local CMR at the liquid-liquid phase boundary appeared to be considerably enlarged compared to the polymerization in bulk. In the framework of this thesis, an approach to the microencapsulation of inorganic phase change materials (PCM) was developed. Two alkaline salt hydrate mixtures with high amounts of crystal water and melting ranges at ambient temperature were chosen as core materials. These were encapsulated using hybrid polymers, i.e. materials with covalently connected inorganic and organic moieties (ORMOCER®s). The process developed proceeds as a Michael-type addition polymerization of thiol (SH) to acrylate (Acr) monomers, selectively under mild reaction conditions at the liquid-liquid interface, and it is initiated by the PCM core. Best encapsulation results were obtained using hybrid monomers with organic functional groups, being covalently linked via the inorganic backbone, at a ratio of Acr:SH ≈ 5:1. If a microdispenser was employed to dose the PCM, uniform and enclosed microcapsules of 40–50 µm diameter and < 5 µm coating thickness were produced. The achieved encapsulation performance is a promising improvement towards a hermetic microencapsulation of inorganic PCM. However, due to the inherently too high water vapor permeability of the employed hybrid polymers, the capsules loose water gradually. Therefore, this still inhibits an application as PCM materials for ambient temperatures. Since the preference for off-stoichiometric polymerizing groups which was found is exceptional for a step-growth polymerization, the reaction mechanism was further investigated using a model system. For that purpose, a mercaptosiloxane (MS) was synthesized, whose inorganic condensation was almost exhaustive, and the siloxane ring size and SH functionality distribution, respectively, was well ascertainable through 29Si-NMR and GPC measurements. This material was combined with trimethylolpropane triacrylate (TMPTA) for encapsulation experiments, and the ratio Acr:SH was systematically varied. The influence of the resins’ acrylate to thiol ratio on the encapsulation performance was elucidated by µ-Raman depth scan measurements of the resulting capsules. With a stoichiometric ratio of Acr:SH = 1:1, a maximum coating thickness was obtained, but a significant acrylate excess of about Acr:SH = 4:1 to 6:1 yielded optimized results with respect to the applications requirements: even, thin, and complete coatings. In contrast, no homogeneous coatings were attained with thiol excess in the material. The model system TMPTA/MS was also employed for bulk polymerizations in a homogeneous organic medium, initiated by triethylamine, which allowed the detection of the critical molar ratios (CMR) of TMPTA/MS. The experimental CMR for acrylate excess at Acr:SH < 5:1 was significantly lower than molar ratios that allowed complete PCM capsule coatings. Therefore, the local CMR at the liquid-liquid phase boundary appeared to be considerably enlarged compared to the polymerization in bulk. Further analysis of experimental CMR values for other acrylate and thiol monomers with different functionalities confirmed the step-growth behavior of the investigated reaction. By a combination of the theoretical CMRSt after Dušek et al., which is based on the Flory-Stockmayer theory, and the Carothers’ equation, theoretical CMR intervals were derived. The experimentally determined CMRs were all located well within these calculated ranges. For the model system TMPTA/MS, further material properties and additional results on the crosslinking performance were achieved. The conversion progress of acrylate and thiol during polymerization was followed via in situ µ-Raman measurements. This also has revealed some limitations of this spectroscopic method which were specified and considered for data evaluation and interpretation. The gelation characteristics and properties of the critical gels as a function of acrylate to thiol ratio, initiator concentration, and temperature were investigated in situ by means of the mechanical spectroscopy approach after Chambon and Winter. Stiffest critical gels and shortest gelation times were detected at high initiator concentrations and for stoichiometric monomer mixtures as well as for acrylate excess up to Acr:SH = 3:1. Thus, it was possible to prove a preference of this monomer system for an acrylate excess also in bulk polymerizations. Furthermore, the overall rate equation for the polymerization of TMPTA and MS was determined to be third order, and first order in each monomer concentration and in the initiator concentration, respectively, up to the gel point. Finally, the activation enthalpy for the bulk polymerization was found to amount to (18,3 ± 0,7) kJ/mol by means of an Arrhenius plot.

The research on supramolecular polymerization has undergone a rapid development in the last two decades, particularly since supramolecular polymers exhibit a broad variety of functionalities and applications in organic electronics, biological science or as functional materials (Chapter 2.1). Although former studies have focused on investigation of the thermodynamics of supramolecular polymerization (Chapter 2.2), the academic interest in the recent years shifted towards gaining insight into kinetically controlled self-assembly and pathway complexity to generate novel out-of-equilibrium architectures with interesting nanostructures and features (Chapter 2.3). Along this path, the concepts of seeded and living supramolecular polymerization were recently developed to enable the formation of supramolecular polymers with controlled length and low polydispersity under precise kinetic control (Chapter 2.4). Besides that, novel strategies were developed to achieve supramolecular copolymerization resulting in complex multicomponent nanostructures with different structural motives. The classification of these supramolecular copolymers on the basis of literature examples and an overview of previously reported principles to create such supramolecular architectures are provided in Chapter 2.5. The aim of the thesis was the non-covalent synthesis of highly desirable supramolecular block copolymers by the approach of living seeded supramolecular polymerization and to study the impact of the molecular shape of the monomeric building blocks on the supramolecular copolymerization. Based on the structure of the previously investigated PBI organogelator H-PBI a series of novel PBIs, bearing identical hydrogen-bonding amide side-groups in imide-position and various kind or number of substituents in bay-position, was synthesized and analyzed within this thesis. The new PBIs were successfully obtained in three steps starting from the respective bromo-substituted perylene-3,4:9,10-tetracarboxylic acid tetrabutylesters or from the N,N’-dicyclohexyl-1,7-dibromoperylene-3,4:9,10-tetracarboxylic acid bisimide. All target compounds were obtained in the final step by imidization reactions of the respective perylene tetracarboxylic acid bisanhydride precursors with N-(2-aminoethyl)-3,4,5-tris(dodecyloxy)-benzamide and were fully characterized by 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy as well as high resolution mass spectrometry. The variation of bay-substituents strongly changes the optical properties of the monomeric PBIs which were investigated by UV/vis and fluorescence spectroscopy. The increase of the number of the methoxy-substituents provokes, for example, a red-shift of the absorption maxima concomitant with a decrease of extinction coefficients and leads to a drastic increase of the fluorescence quantum yields. Furthermore, the molecular geometry of the PBIs is also affected by variations of the bay-substituents. Thus, increasing the steric demand of the bay-substituents leads to an enlargement of the twist angles of the PBI cores as revealed by DFT calculations. Especially the 1,7-dimethoxy bay-substituted MeO-PBI proved to be very well-suited for the studies envisioned within this thesis. The self-assembly of this PBI derivative was analyzed in detail by UV/vis, fluorescence and FT-IR spectroscopy as well as atomic force microscopy (Chapter 3). These studies revealed that MeO-PBI forms in a solvent mixture of methylcyclohexane and toluene (2:1, v/v) kinetically trapped off-pathway H-aggregated nanoparticles upon fast cooling of a monomeric solution from 90 to 20 °C. However, upon slow cooling of the monomer solution fluorescent J-type nanofibers are formed by π π interactions and intermolecular hydrogen-bonding. The kinetically metastable off-pathway H-aggregates can be transformed into the thermodynamically more favored J-type aggregates by addition of seeds, which are produced by ultrasonication of the polymeric nanofibers. Interestingly, the living character of this seed-induced supramolecular polymerization process was proven by a newly designed multicycle polymerization experimental protocol. This living polymerization experiment clearly proves, that the polymerization can only occur at the “active” ends of the polymeric seed and that almost no recombination or chain termination processes are present. Hence, the approach of living supramolecular polymerization enables the formation of supramolecular polymers with controlled length and narrow polydispersity. In Chapter 4 the copolymerization of MeO-PBI with the structurally similar 1,7-dichloro (Cl-PBI) and 1,7-dimethylthio (MeS-PBI) bay-substituted PBIs is studied in detail. Both PBIs form analogous to MeO-PBI kinetically trapped off-pathway aggregates, which can be converted into the thermodynamically stable supramolecular polymers by seed-induced living supramolecular polymerization under precise kinetic control. However, the stability of the kinetically trapped aggregates of Cl-PBI and MeS-PBI is distinctly reduced compared to that of MeO-PBI, because the π-π-interactions of the kinetically metastable aggregates are hampered through the increased twisting of the PBI-cores of the former PBIs. UV/vis studies revealed that the two-component seeded copolymerization of the kinetically trapped state of MeO-PBI with seeds of Cl-PBI leads to the formation of unprecedented supramolecular block copolymers with A-B-A pattern by a living supramolecular polymerization process at the termini of the seeds. Remarkably, the resulting A-B-A block pattern of the obtained copolymers was clearly confirmed by atomic force microscopy studies as the respective blocks formed by the individual monomeric units could be distinguished by the pitches of the helical nanofibers. Moreover, detailed UV/vis and AFM studies have shown that by inverted two-component seed-induced polymerization, e.g., upon addition of seeds of MeO-PBI to the kinetically trapped aggregates of Cl-PBI, triblock supramolecular copolymers with B-A-B pattern can be generated. The switching of the block pattern could only be achieved because of the perfectly matching conditions for the copolymerization process and the tailored molecular geometry of the individual building blocks of both PBIs. These studies have demonstrated for the first time, that the block pattern of a supramolecular copolymer can be modulated by the experimental protocol through the approach of living supramolecular polymerization. Furthermore, by UV/vis analysis of the living copolymerization of MeO-PBI and MeS-PBI similar results were obtained showing also the formation of both A-B-A and B-A-B type supramolecular block copolymers. Although for these two PBIs the individual blocks could not be identified by AFM because the helical nanofibers of both PBIs exhibit identical helical pitches, these studies revealed for the first time that the approach of seeded living polymerization is not limited to a special pair of monomeric building blocks. In the last part of the thesis (Chapter 5) a systematic study on the two-component living copolymerization of PBIs with various sterical demanding bay-substituents is provided. Thus, a series of PBIs containing identical hydrogen-bonding amide groups in imide position but variable number (1-MeO-PBI, MeO-PBI, 1,6,7-MeO-PBI, 1,6,7,12-MeO-PBI) or size (EtO-PBI, iPrO-PBI) of alkoxy bay-substituents was investigated. The molecular geometry of the monomeric building blocks has a strong impact on the thermodynamically and even more pronounced on the kinetically controlled aggregation in solvent mixtures of MCH and Tol. While the mono- and dialkoxy-substituted PBIs form kinetically metastable species, the self-assembly of the tri- and tetramethoxy-substituted PBIs (1,6,7-MeO-PBI and 1,6,7,12-MeO-PBI) is completely thermodynamically controlled. The two 1,7-alkoxy substituted PBIs (EtO-PBI, iPrO-PBI) form very similar to MeO-PBI kinetically off-pathway H-aggregates and thermodynamically more favored J-type aggregates. However, the stability of the kinetically metastable state is drastically lower and the conversion into the thermodynamically favored state much faster than for MeO-PBI. In contrast, the monomethoxy-substituted PBI derivative (1-MeO-PBI) forms a kinetically trapped species by intramolecular hydrogen-bonding of the monomers, which can be transformed into the thermodynamically favored nanofibers by seeded polymerization. Importantly, the two-component seeded copolymerization of the kinetically trapped MeO PBI with seeds of other PBIs of the present series was studied by UV/vis and AFM revealing that the formation of supramolecular block copolymers is only possible for appropriate combinations of PBI building blocks. Thus, the seeded polymerization of the trapped state of the moderately core-twisted MeO-PBI with the, according to DFT-calculations, structurally similar PBIs (EtO-PBI and iPrO-PBI) leads to the formation of A-B-A block copolymers, like in the seeded copolymerization of MeO-PBItrapped with seeds of Cl-PBI and MeS-PBI already described in Chapter 4. However, by addition of seeds of the almost planar PBIs (H-PBI and 1-MeO-PBI) or seeds of the strongly core-twisted PBIs (1,6,7-MeO-PBI and 1,6,7,12-MeO-PBI) to the kinetically trapped state of MeO-PBI no block copolymers can be obtained. The mismatching geometry of these molecular building blocks strongly hampers both the intermolecular hydrogen-bonding and the π-π-interactions between the two different PBIs and consequently prevents the copolymerization process. Furthermore, the studies of the two-component seeded copolymerization of the kinetically trapped species of 1-MeO-PBI with seeds of the other PBIs also corroborated that a precise shape complementarity is crucial to generate supramolecular block copolymers. Thus, by addition of seeds of H-PBI to the kinetically trapped monomers of 1-MeO-PBI supramolecular block copolymers were generated. Both PBIs exhibit an almost planar PBI core according to DFT-calculations leading to strong non-covalent interactions between these PBIs. This perfectly matching geometry of both PBIs also enables the inverted seeded copolymerization of the kinetically trapped monomers of H-PBI with 1-MeO-PBIseed concomitant with a switching of the block pattern of the supramolecular copolymer from A-B-A to B-A-B type. In contrast, the seeding with the moderately twisted (MeO-PBI, EtO-PBI and iPrO-PBI) and the strongly twisted PBIs (1,6,7-MeO-PBI and 1,6,7,12 MeO-PBI) has no effect on the kinetically trapped state of 1-MeO-PBI, because the copolymerization of these PBIs is prevented by the mismatching geometry of the molecular building blocks. In conclusion, the supramolecular polymerization and two-component seeded copolymerization of a series of PBI monomers was investigated within this thesis. The studies revealed that the thermodynamically and kinetically controlled self-assembly can be strongly modified by subtle changes of the monomeric building blocks. Moreover, the results have shown that living supramolecular polymerization is an exceedingly powerful method to generate unprecedented supramolecular polymeric nanostructures with controlled block pattern and length distribution. The formation of supramolecular block copolymers can only be achieved under precise kinetic control of the polymerization process and is strongly governed by the shape complementarity already imparted in the individual components. Thus, these insightful studies might enable a more rational design of monomeric building blocks for the non-covalent synthesis of highly complex supramolecular architectures with interesting properties for possible future applications, e.g., as novel functional materials. / Das Forschungsgebiet der supramolekularen Polymerisation hat sich in den letzten Jahrzehnten sehr rasch entwickelt, zumal da supramolekulare Polymere eine Fülle an Anwendungsmöglichkeiten in der organischen Elektronik, der Biologie oder als Funktionsmaterialen bieten (Kapitel 2.1). Während frühere Studien den Fokus auf die Untersuchung der Thermodynamik der supramolekularen Polymerisation gelegt haben (Kapitel 2.2), hat sich das akademische Interesse in jüngster Zeit dahingehend verschoben, Einblicke in kinetisch kontrollierte Selbstassemblierungsprozesse zu erhalten, um neuartige Strukturen mit faszinierenden Eigenschaften zu generieren (Kapitel 2.3). Im Zuge dieser Entwicklung wurde das Konzept der Saat-induzierten und der lebenden supramolekularen Polymerisation entwickelt, welche die Bildung von supramolekularen Polymeren mit geringer Polydispersität in kinetisch kontrollierten Prozessen ermöglichen (Kapitel 2.4). Des Weiteren wurden neue Strategien zu Erzeugung von Nanostrukturen entwickelt, die aus verschiedenen Komponenten aufgebaut sind und somit neue komplexe Strukturmotive zeigen. Eine Einteilung dieser supramolekularen Copolymere anhand einiger Literaturbeispiele und eine kurze Übersicht über die bisherigen Methoden, solche supramolekularen Strukturen zu erzeugen ist in Kapitel 2.5 dargestellt. Das Ziel der Doktorarbeit war die nicht-kovalente Synthese von erstrebenswerten supramolekularen Blockcopolymeren mittels lebender Saat-induzierter Polymerisation und zu erforschen, wie die molekulare Form der Monomerbausteine die supramolekulare Copolymerisation beeinflusst. Basierend auf der Molekülstruktur des zuvor untersuchten Perylenbisimidfarbstoffes H-PBI wurden in dieser Arbeit eine Reihe von neuen Perylenbisimiden mit identischen Amid-Seitengruppen in Imidposition und unterschiedlicher Art oder Anzahl von Buchtsubstituenten synthetisiert und charakterisiert. Die neuen Perylenbisimide wurden erfolgreich in drei Stufen durch neu entwickelte Syntheserouten erhalten, wobei von den jeweiligen Brom substituierten Perylen-3,4:9,10-tetracarbonsäuretetrabutylestern oder von N,N‘ Dicyclohexyl-1,7-dibromperylen-3,4:9,10-tetracarbonsäurebisimid ausgegangen wurde. Alle Zielverbindungen wurden im letzten Syntheseschritt mittels einer Imidisierungsreaktion der jeweiligen Perylenbisanhydridvorstufen mit N (2-Aminoethyl)-3,4,5-tris(dodecyloxy)benzamid erhalten und mittels 1H- und 13C NMR-Spektroskopie sowie mit hochauflösender Massenspektrometrie charakterisiert. Die Variation der Buchtsubstituenten hat einen starken Einfluss auf die optischen Eigenschaften der Perylenbisimidmonomere, was mittels UV/vis- und Fluoreszenzspektroskopie untersucht wurde. Die ansteigende Zahl der Methoxysubstituenten verursacht zum Beispiel eine Rotverschiebung der Absorptionsmaxima, welche mit einer Abnahme der Extinktionskoeffizienten einhergeht, und führt zu einem starken Anstieg der Fluoreszenzquantenausbeute. Außerdem wird auch die Molekülgeometrie der Perylenbisimide durch die Variation der Buchtsubstituenten beeinflusst. Mittels DFT-Rechnungen konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Zunahme des sterischen Anspruchs der Buchtsubstituenten eine Vergrößerung des Torsionswinkels der Perylenbisimidkerne zur Folge hat. Als besonders geeignet für die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit anvisierten Studien erwies sich das mit zwei Methylgruppen in 1,7-Buchtposition substituierte MeO-PBI. Die Selbstassemblierung dieses 1,7-Dimethoxy-substituierten Perylenbisimid-Derivates wurde mit Hilfe von UV/vis-, Fluoreszenz- und FT-IR-Spektroskopie sowie mittels Rasterkraftmikroskopie detailliert analysiert (Kapitel 3). Diese Studien haben gezeigt, dass MeO-PBI in einem Lösungsmittelgemisch aus Methylcyclohexan und Toluol (2:1, v/v) in einem kinetisch kontrollierten Prozess durch schnelles Abkühlen der Monomerlösung von 90 auf 20 °C „off-pathway“ Nanopartikel ausbildet. Durch langsames Abkühlen der Monomerlösung entstehen hingegen fluoreszierende, J-aggregierte Nanofasern aufgrund von π-π-Wechselwirkungen und intermolekularen Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen. Die kinetisch metastabilen „off-pathway“ H-Aggregate können durch Zugabe einer polymeren J-Aggregat-Saat, welche durch eine Behandlung der polymeren Nanofasern mit Ultraschall gewonnen werden kann, in die thermodynamisch begünstigten J-Aggregate transformiert werden. Außerdem wurde der lebende Charakter dieser supramolekularen Saat-induzierten Polymerisation durch ein neu entworfenes multizyklisches Versuchsprotokoll nachgewiesen. Diese Experimente zur lebenden supramolekularen Polymerisation zeigen deutlich, dass der Polymerisationsprozess nur an den „aktiven“ Enden der polymeren Saat stattfinden kann und dass außerdem kaum Rekombinations- oder Kettenterminationsprozesse auftreten. Folglich ermöglicht die Methode der lebenden supramolekularen Polymerisation die Synthese von supramolekularen Polymeren mit kontrollierbarer Polymerlänge und geringer Polydispersität. In Kapitel 4 wird die Copolymerisation von MeO-PBI mit den strukturell ähnlichen 1,7 Dichlor- (Cl-PBI) und 1,7-Dimethylthiosubstituierten (MeS-PBI) Perylenbisimiden ausgeführt. Beide neuen Perylenbisimide bilden analog zu MeO-PBI „off-pathway“ Aggregate, die durch Saatzugabe in einem kinetisch kontrollierten Prozess in die thermodynamisch stabileren supramolekularen Polymere umgewandelt werden können. Die Stabilität der kinetisch gefangenen Aggregate von Cl-PBI und MeS-PBI ist jedoch verglichen mit den metastabilen Aggregaten von MeO-PBI deutlich geringer, da die π π Wechselwirkungen zwischen den molekularen Bausteinen aufgrund des vergrößerten Torsionswinkels der Peryleneinheiten stark reduziert sind. UV/vis-spektroskopische Studien zeigen, dass die Saat-induzierte Copolymerisation des kinetisch gefangenen Zustandes von MeO-PBI mit der Saat von Cl-PBI durch einen lebenden Kettenwachstumsprozess an den Polymerenden der Saat zur Ausbildung von neuartigen supramolekularen Blockcopolymeren mit A B A Blockstruktur führt. Die erzeugte A-B-A-Blockstruktur der erhaltenen Copolymere konnte eindeutig mittels Rasterkraftmikroskopie bestätigt werden, da die jeweiligen Polymerblöcke bestehend aus den einzelnen monomeren Einheiten anhand der Ganghöhe der helikalen Nanofasern unterschieden werden können. Ausführliche UV/vis- und Rasterkraftmikroskopiestudien haben außerdem demonstriert, dass, zum Beispiel durch Zugabe der Saat von MeO-PBI zu den kinetisch gefangenen Aggregaten von Cl PBI, Triblockcopolymere mit B-A-B-Blockstruktur in einer invertierten Saat-induzierten Zweikomponenten-Copolymerisation, erzeugt werden können. Dieser Wechsel der Blockstruktur kann nur durch perfekt abgestimmte Bedingungen für die Copolymerisation und bei übereinstimmender Molekülgeometrie der Monomereinheiten erreicht werden. Diese Studien zeigen erstmals, dass die Blockstruktur der supramolekularen Polymere durch das Versuchsprotokoll der lebenden supramolekularen Polymerisation variiert werden kann. Des Weiteren lieferten UV/vis-spektroskopische Untersuchungen der lebenden Copolymerisation von MeO-PBI und MeS-PBI ähnliche Ergebnisse, was darauf hindeutet, dass ebenfalls supramolekulare Blockcopolymere mit A-B-A- und B-A-B-Struktur gebildet werden können. Obwohl die einzelnen Polymerblöcke in diesem Fall wegen der identischen Helixganghöhe der Nanofasern nicht zugeordnet werden konnten, so zeigten diese Experimente doch, dass die Methode der Saat-induzierten lebenden Polymerisation nicht auf ein spezielles Paar von Monomerbausteinen limitiert ist. Im letzten Abschnitt der Doktorarbeit (Kapitel 5) wird eine systematische Studie der lebenden Zweikomponenten-Copolymerisation von Perylenbisimiden mit unterschiedlich sterisch anspruchsvollen Buchtsubstituenten dargestellt. Dementsprechend wurde eine Reihe von Perylenbisimiden mit identischen Amidseitenketten, aber unterschiedlicher Anzahl (1-MeO-PBI, MeO-PBI, 1,6,7-MeO-PBI, 1,6,7,12-MeO-PBI) oder Größe (EtO PBI, iPrO-PBI) der Alkoxybuchtsubstituenten untersucht. Die Molekülgeometrie der Monomereinheiten hat einen starken Einfluss auf das thermodynamisch und mehr noch auf das kinetisch kontrollierte Aggregationsverhalten in Lösungsmittelgemischen aus Methylcyclohexan und Toluol. Während die mono- und dialkoxysubstituierten Perylenbisimide kinetisch metastabile Zustände ausbilden, findet die Selbstassemblierung der tri- und tetramethoxysubstituierten Perylenbisimide (1,6,7-MeO-PBI, 1,6,7,12 MeO PBI) vollständig unter thermodynamischer Kontrolle statt. Die zwei 1,7 alkoxysubstituierten Perylenbisimide (EtO-PBI, iPrO-PBI) bilden analog zu MeO PBI sowohl kinetische „off-pathway“ H-Aggregate als auch thermodynamisch begünstigte J Aggregate. Verglichen mit MeO-PBI ist jedoch die Stabilität der kinetisch metastabilen Zustände von EtO-PBI und iPrO-PBI viel geringer und die Umwandlung in die thermodynamisch stabileren Aggregate geschieht daher viel schneller. Das monomethoxysubstituierte Perylenbisimid-Derivat (1 MeO PBI) bildet im Gegensatz dazu kinetisch gefangene Monomere durch intramolekulare Wasserstoffbrücken-bindungen, welche sich durch Saat-induzierte Polymerisation in die thermodynamisch begünstigteren Nanofasern transformieren lassen. Die Saat-induzierte Zweikomponenten-Copolymerisation des kinetisch gefangenen Zustands von MeO-PBI durch Saatzugabe der anderen Perylenbisimide der Reihe wurde mittels UV/vis-Spektroskopie und Rasterkraftmikroskopie analysiert. Diese Studien eröffneten, dass die Bildung von supramolekularen Blockcopolymeren nur für geometrisch passende Kombinationen der Perylenbisimide möglich ist. Dementsprechend führt die Saat-induzierte Polymerisation des kinetisch gefangenen Zustands von MeO-PBI mit den, laut DFT Rechnungen, strukturell ähnlichen Perylenbisimiden (EtO-PBI, iPrO-PBI) zur Bildung von A B A Blockcopolymeren, analog zu dem im Kapitel 4 beschriebenem Fall der Saat induzierten Copolymerisation mit Cl-PBI und MeS-PBI. Die Zugabe einer Saat der planaren Perylenbisimide (H-PBI, 1-MeO-PBI) oder der Perylenbisimide mit stark verdrehten Perylenkernen (1,6,7-MeO-PBI, 1,6,7,12 MeO PBI) zum kinetisch metastabilen Zustand von MeO-PBI führt dagegen nicht zur Bildung von Blockcopolymeren. Der Unterschied in der Molekülgeometrie dieser Monomerbausteine vermindert erheblich die Stärke der π π Wechselwirkungen zwischen den unterschiedlichen Perylenbisimiden und verhindert daher deren Copolymerisation. Die Studien zur Saat induzierten Zweikomponenten-Copolymerisation des kinetisch gefangenen Zustands von 1-MeO-PBI mit den anderen Perylenbisimiden der Serie bestätigte weiterhin, dass eine genaue Übereinstimmung der molekularen Geometrie entscheidend für die Erzeugung von supramolekularen Blockcopolymeren ist. Durch Zugabe der Saat von H-PBI zum kinetisch metastabilen Zustand von 1-MeO-PBI konnten folglich supramolekulare Blockcopolymere generiert werden. Mittels DFT-Rechnungen wurde gezeigt, dass beide Perylenbisimide einen relativ planaren Perylenkern aufweisen, was zu sehr starken, nicht-kovalenten Wechselwirkungen zwischen diesen beiden Monomerbausteinen führt. Die übereinstimmende Geometrie beider Perylenbisimide ermöglicht auch die invertierte Saat-induzierte Copolymerisation des kinetisch gefangenen Zustands von H-PBI mit 1-MeO-PBISaat, was mit einem Wechsel der Blockstruktur des supramolekularen Blockcopolymers von A B A zu B A B einhergeht. Die Zugabe der Saat der mäßig (EtO-PBI, iPrO PBI) und stark verdrehten Perylenbisimide (1,6,7-MeO-PBI, 1,6,7,12-MeO-PBI) hat im Gegensatz dazu keinen Effekt auf den kinetisch gefangenen Zustand von 1-MeO-PBI, da die Copolymerisation dieser Perylenbisimide durch die Nichtübereinstimmung der Molekülgeometrie der Monomerbausteine verhindert wird. Abschließend lässt sich zusammenfassen, dass in dieser Arbeit die supramolekulare Polymerisation und Saat-induzierte Zweikomponenten-Copolymerisation einer Reihe von Perylenbisimidmonomeren untersucht worden ist. Die Studien haben demonstriert, dass die thermodynamisch und kinetisch kontrollierten Selbstassemblierungsprozesse durch subtile Änderungen der Monomerbausteine stark variiert werden können. Außerdem zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass die lebende supramolekulare Polymerisation eine sehr leistungsfähige Methode zur Erzeugung von neuartigen supramolekularen, polymeren Nanostrukturen mit kontrollierter Blockstruktur und Längenverteilung darstellt. Die Bildung dieser supramolekularen Blockcopolymere kann nur unter präziser kinetischer Kontrolle erreicht werden und ist durch die Komplementarität der einzelnen molekularen Komponenten stark beeinflusst. Diese aufschlussreichen Studien bilden möglicherweise die Grundlage für ein rationaleres Design neuer Monomerbausteine zur nicht-kovalenten Synthese von hochkomplexen, supramolekularen Strukturen mit potentiell einzigartigen Eigenschaften für mögliche Anwendungen, beispielsweise als neuartige Funktionsmaterialien.

Membrane processes have received growing attention due to their low energy consumption and ease of operation. Thin-film composite reverse osmosis membranes based on polyamides are the most widely applied commercial membranes, because of their high flux and selectivity. However, their application for gas separation processes is still limited. This is the due to the presence of defects in the membrane when in the dry state. Traditionally, thin-film composite membranes are made by interfacial polymerization between a polar (aqueous) phase and a non-polar (organic) phase. The most commonly applied thin-film composite membranes are made by dissolving m-phenylene diamine in the aqueous phase and trimesoyl chloride in the organic phase. This work investigated the possibility of fabricating thin-film composite membranes when an aliphatic alcohol (methanol, ethanol or isopropanol) is used as the polar phase. This is further extended to examining the ability of a PDMS coating to plug the defects in such layers. The effects of temperature and support type on the membrane performance were also studied. Solubility tests were conducted to determine the solubility limit of commercial and in-house fabricated amine monomers in water, methanol, ethanol and isopropanol. Water-insoluble monomers were found to be soluble in ethanol and methanol. Gas permeation tests were conducted on membranes made using water, methanol, ethanol and isopropanol as the polar phase. The results showed that the membranes produced by aliphatic alcohols had higher selectivities. The highest H2/CO2 selectivity of ~ 26 was observed in the ethanol-based membranes when they were coated with PDMS and tested at 80 C. It was confirmed that PDMS is able to plug the defects in the membrane. Membranes made on the polysulfone support were found to have higher permeance and comparable selectivity relative to the membranes made on the polyacrylonitrile supports. It was also found that a change in the polar phase solvent is able to alter the morphology of the membranes. SEM micrographs showed clear differences in the surface structure of each membrane. The average thickness values obtained from ellipsometry measurements showed a correlation with the interface miscibility. The thickest membrane corresponded to the most miscible interface (IPA/Isopar).

An introduction is given to the background theory and scientific literature of the major subject areas of interest in this thesis, namely the chemistry of free radical and anionic polymerisation, molecular weight control in each type of polymerisation, polymerisation reactors, computer simulation of polymerisation processes and polymer characterisation by gel permeation chromatography. A novel computer model has been devised, based on the analysis of the polymerisation process in terms of the reaction extent of each reactant and the use of generation functions to describe the concentration of living and dead polymeric species, for the free radical, solution polymerisation of methylmethacrylate in a CSTR. Both heat and mass balance expressions have been described. Conversion, Mn and Mw were monitored. To test the model a reactor was designed and constructed. A detailed description of the reactor and the experimental conditions used for the validation of the model are given. The results of these studies are presented and excellent agreement is shown between model predictions and experiments up to 30% conversion for Mn w and % conversion. A similar study is described for the anionic polymerisation of styrene in tetrahydrofuran as solvent, in a CSTR. In this work the computer model becomes 'stiff' when realistic rate constants are introduced in the kinetic expressions. Experimental difficulties were encountered in obtaining reproducible results in the anionic work. A new approach of using 'scavengers' as protecting agents for the living chains is described. A scavenger was successfully employed in the preparation of block copolymers using a tubular reactor. Block copolymerisation, in addition to providing a means of checking the number of the 'living' chains inside the reactor, is of interest in its own right. All the experimental findings are discussed in relation to the currently accepted views found in the scientific literature.

<p> Dramatic advances over the past decade have occurred in the use of cryogenic electron microscopy (cryoEM) to elucidate the structures of macromolecules at atomic resolution. Unfortunately, the sample preparation process is one of the most time-consuming and empirical methods in the cryoEM workflow. Each sample must be tediously optimized to resolve issues with particle aggregation, ice quality, particle orientation, and particle density to enable high-resolution reconstruction analysis. Post-polymerization modifications of synthetic aqueous bottlebrushes offer a promising approach to streamline the workflow for cryoEM sample preparation. Our approach utilizes synthetic bottlebrush materials comprised of flexible polymer scaffolds bearing grafted side-chains, armed with high affinity ligands at the distal termini of the grafted polymers along the polymer core. Development of water-soluble one-dimensional (1D) synthetic bottlebrush polymers has led to new advancements in the biomaterials, antimicrobial, nanomedicine, and responsive materials fields. These synthetic bottlebrush materials are favorable as they confer properties that linear polymers and small molecules cannot achieve. Moreover, structural manipulations employed during post-polymerization processes can afford bottlebrush polymers with distinguishable topologies for advanced functions. These 1D constructs can be synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), reversible addition- fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization (RAFT), ring-opening polymerization (ROP), cationic ring-opening polymerization (CROP), anionic ring-opening polymerization (AROP) or ring opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP). The chemical composition of the molecule, number of monomer repeats, grafting density and topology influence the morphology and function of polymer brushes. Elongated, vesicular or micellar morphologies can be specifically tuned for the desired application of the material. The morphology of the polymers can also be manipulated by concentration effects. The morphologies of amphiphilic bottlebrush materials specifically, can typically be influenced by structural topology, solvent choice, or external conditions. ROMP is a living polymerization mechanism that can suffer from catalytic backbiting, causing a loss of livingness. The synthesis of aqueous bottlebrush polymers and the comparison of morphologies via AUC, DLS, AFM and TEM will be presented in this dissertation. The synthetic amphiphilic bottlebrush polymer family presented suffered a loss of livingness and ultimately displayed distinct morphologies, relative to chemical composition, solvent, and ultimately polymerization time. Post-polymerization 11 modifications such as backbone hydrolysis and single-walled carbon nanotube complexation promoted even more unique morphologies of bottlebrushes. These synthetic materials indicate use as promising reagents for cryoEM sample preparation.  </p>

One of the largest problems that stands before us is the quest to find sustainable alternatives to fossil-based materials. Fossil-based products can be found all around us in our society. This quest has forced us to look for new ways to build materials. Synthetic polymer materials have traditionally been produced from fossil-based starting materials however, in modern times studies regarding biobased superseders for the unsustainable starting materials has been conducted.  One of these new potential building blocks is ferulic acid (FA) that is an aromatic cinnamic acid. FA has previously been used as an antioxidant but since it in addition is aromatic, have more than two functional groups and contains a double bond between two carbons it holds a large potential for polymeric synthesis.  FA has been isolated from agricultural side streams such as sugar beet pulp, flax shives, wheat- and corn bran through enzymatic release and pressurised low-polarity water extraction (PLPW).  One of the largest areas of use regarding FA is the biological applications. It has been proven to be effective protection against UV-radiation which open up possible uses in the textile industry, cosmetics and skincare. FA has also shown biomedical properties such as antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, anticarcinogenic and antiviral properties among others.  Two of the most common polymerization methods are free radical- and step-wise polymerization. FA shows great promise for the possibility to polymerize through both these methods since it has a double bond and more than two functional groups. Polymer materials produced from FA has been done with step-wise polymerization. The polymers showed thermostable and possibly biodegradable properties. Free-radical polymerization requires a monomer with a sterically unhindered double bond and for that reason the FA must be modified in order to polymerize using free radicals. This modified monomer has been produced in a small laboratory scale and can in theory be polymerized through radical polymerization. / Ett av de största problemen som vi står inför i modern tid är hur vi ska ersätta material som är producerade från fossila bränslen. Dessa material finns överallt i vårt moderna samhälle och spelar en betydelserik roll i vår infrastruktur. Detta har tvingat oss att undersöka andra miljövänligare källor för att se om dessa kan ersätta de fossila. Polymera material är ett exempel på material som tidigare har haft en fossil bas. På grund av detta har dessa material och hur dem kan producerats undersökt för att se om det finns en alternativ biobaserad källa.  Ferulsyra är en aromatisk kanelsyra som är mest känd för att ha antioxidatiova egenskaper. Utöver detta innehåller ferulsyra en dubbelbindning mellan två kol och dessutom fler än två funktionella grupper vilket indikerar att den kan vara en möjlig monomer för polymersyntes.  Ferulsyra kan produceras från sidoströmmar från jordbruksindustrin så som till exemper sockerbetsmassa, linhår och vete, både genom enzymatiska reaktioner eller med hjälp av extraktion med ett lösningsmedel.  En av de största användningsområdena gällande ferulsyra är inom biologiska applikationer. Den kan bland annat användas som solskydd, både inom hudvårdsindustrin och som ytbeläggning i textilier. Ferulsyra har också uppvisat medicinska egenskaper som visar på att det kan användas mot allergier, inflammationer, diabetes, canser och virussjukdomar.  De två vanligaste metoderna för polymersyntes är fri radikalpolymerisation och stegvis polymerisation. Ferulsyra uppvisar stor potential för att kunna användas som monomer i båda metoderna då den innehåller en dubbelbindning mellan två kol och fler än två funktionella grupper. Syntes av ferulsyra genom stegvis polymerisation har genomförts. Resultatet var att de producerade materialen uppvisade termostabila och biologiskt nedbrytbara egenskaper. För att fri radikalpolymerisation ska vara möjligt med ferulsyra som monomer krävs det att dubbelbindningen inte är steriskt hindrad. Detta innebär att ferulsyra först måste modifieras innan polymerisationen är möjlig. Dessa modifieringar har genomförts på labbskala och den producerade monomeren är teoretiskt sätt möjlig att polymerisera genom fri radikalpolymerisation.

No / Cd3P2 quantum dots (QDs) have been synthesized in both aqueous and high boiling point surfactant solutions via a gas-bubbling method. The synthesized QDs exhibit photoluminescent wavelengths spanning across the visible red to the near-infrared (NIR) spectral region. Two types of shell materials, SiO2 nanobeads and PS micro-spheres, have been employed to encapsulate the Cd3P2 QDs which provide protecting layers against physiological solutions. The coating layers are proven to enhance the optical and chemical stability of Cd3P2 QDs, and make the fluorescent particles capable of sustaining long-term photo-oxidation. To demonstrate the applicability of the bio-labelling, the fluorescent composite particles (PS@QDs, SiO2@QDs) were injected into a culture medium of colorectal carcinoma (LoVo) cells. The results demonstrated that the PS@QDs exhibited a brighter fluorescence, but the SiO2@QDs provided a better photostability which consequently led to long-term cancer cell detection as well as a much lower release of toxic Cd2+ into the PBS solutions.

Yes / Amphiphilic diblock copolymers, poly(2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate-co-2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-b-poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate), P(DEAEMA-co-DMAEMA)-b-PDMAEMA with various amounts of DEAEMA have been synthesized by RAFT polymerization. Their micellization in water has been investigated by scattering measurements over a wide pH range. It appeared that the polymers self-assembled into pH sensitive star like micelles. For a given composition, when the pH is varied the extent of aggregation can be tuned reversibly by orders of magnitude. By varying the copolymer composition in the hydrophobic block, the onset and extent of aggregation were shifted with respect to pH. This class of diblock copolymer offers the possibility to select the range of stimuli-responsiveness that is useful for a given application, which can rarely be achieved with conventional diblock copolymers consisting of homopolymeric blocks. / European Science Foundation (ESF), Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), BP (Firm), Birmingham Science City, Advantage West Midlands (AWM), European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)

Yes / The synthesis and self-assembly of thymine-containing polymers were performed using RAFT dispersion polymerization. A combination of microscopy and scattering techniques was used to analyze the resultant complex morphologies. The primary observation from this study is that the obtained aggregates induced during the polymerization were well-defined despite the constituent copolymers possessing broad dispersities. Moreover, a variety of parameters, including the choice of polymerization solvent, the degree of polymerization of both blocks and the presence of an adenine-containing mediator, were observed to affect the resultant size and shape of the assembly. / University of Warwick, National Science Foundation (U.S.) (NSF), Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC)