In the studies of men and masculinity, most of the focus has been on masculine dysfunction strain, or the strain males feel as it relates to the various expectations of masculinity. In contrast, the research on discrepancy strain (or the strain males feel when they fail to meet these expectations) is limited. Unlike dysfunction strain, there are not any widely accepted and utilized scales measuring discrepancy. By combining identity theory and general strain theory with gender and feminist theory, my goal is to examine how masculine discrepancy may be related to the endorsement of aggression and misogyny. The aim of this dissertation is to develop and validate a scale to operationalize masculine discrepancy as it is theorized; this scale will then be used to examine the following research questions: does masculine discrepancy impact males' individual endorsement of aggression and misogyny? And if so, are these impacts moderated by failure to meet particular aspects, or "pillars," of masculinity? I created a masculine discrepancy scale that more accurately operationalizes the theoretical concept of masculine discrepancy. First, I synthesized various masculinity scales, namely the Male Role Norms Inventory, the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, and the Man Box scale to develop assessments of males' masculine ideals ("ideal") and perceptions of their lived experiences ("actual" or "experiences"). By comparing ideal to actual, we can calculate a discrepancy score, where a score of 0 indicates consistency, and scores further from 0 indicate discrepancy. These scores are calculated both as an overall assessment of discrepancy and by particular pillars of masculinity. Following a pilot study of undergraduate sociology students, 1,000 males above the age of 18 were surveyed. These surveys were conducted via Cint panel distribution in December 2023. I then use factor and cluster analysis as well as regression analyses to test the following hypotheses: (1) Masculine Discrepancy Stress will have a positive relationship with aggression and misogyny. (2) Higher endorsement of masculine ideals and lived experiences will be associated with higher levels of endorsement of aggression and misogyny when compared to lower endorsement of ideals and experiences. (3) Masculine Discrepancy, or the difference between idealized and lived masculine experiences, will be negatively correlated with aggression and misogyny. Individuals with positive discrepancies (lived experiences surpassing their masculine ideals) will exhibit lower levels of aggression and misogyny compared to those with negative discrepancies (masculine ideals surpassing lived experiences). (4) Certain masculine ideals and experiences will have stronger associations with aggression and misogyny than others. (5) Cluster analysis of ideals and experiences will reveal four groups of males: Norm-Favoring Consistents: High ideals, high experiences; Norm-Favoring Discrepants: High ideals, low experiences; Norm-Rejecting Consistents: Low ideals, low experiences; Norm-Rejecting Discrepants: Low ideals, high experiences. (6) These clusters will differ in their endorsement of aggression and misogyny. The Norm-Favoring Discrepants will exhibit the highest levels of aggression and misogyny, followed by the Norm-Favoring Consistents. The Norm-Rejecting Consistents will have lower levels than both of the Norm-Favoring groups, and the Norm-Rejecting Discrepants will have the lowest endorsement of aggression and misogyny. Hypotheses 1 through 4 were supported, while hypotheses 5 and 6 had limited support, as the two "Consistent" groups did not clearly differ as "norm-favoring" vs. "norm-rejecting." / Doctor of Philosophy / We currently live in an age where masculinity is the topic of much conversation. To one side, we have talking heads and political pundits decrying what they call "attacks on masculinity" or "attacks on men," and include suggestions like reading self-help books comparing humans to lobsters and tanning your testicles to regain lost masculinity. To the other side, we have self-professed "kings of toxic masculinity" who charge $8,000/year for a "PhD course" (the PhD standing for "Pimpin' Hoes Degree") being arrested for rape and human trafficking. Psychologists have found that having traditional masculine beliefs is associated with sexually aggressive and abusive behaviors and beliefs, coercion, dating violence, hostile sexism, hostility toward women, and self-reported violence and aggression. However, little research has been conducted on the outcomes men face when they fail to meet their own expectations of what they consider necessary to be "real men," perhaps partially due to the fact that there is no widely used scale measuring this concept of masculine discrepancy. In my dissertation, I create this type of scale in order to ask the question: when men fail to meet their own expectations concerning what it means to be a "real man," will they have higher rates of aggression and misogyny? And does it matter if men fail to meet one "pillar" of expectation (ex. being a playboy) compared to another "pillar" of expectation (ex. being in control of their emotions)? I explore this question by surveying 1,000 men about their views on what it means to be a "real man," and their actual experiences as it relates to "being a real man." I then run several statistical analyses to test my hypotheses regarding the amount of discrepancy and its relationship to the endorsement of aggression and misogyny. I find that the more a man worries about being seen as "manly," the more likely he is to endorse aggression and misogyny. Similarly, in many cases, the more a man endorses traditional masculine ideals and corresponding experiences, the more likely he is to endorse certain forms of aggression and misogyny. Additionally, I find that men who fail to live up to their own ideals in certain cases have higher endorsement of aggression and misogyny, while men whose experiences surpass their ideals have lower endorsement of aggression and misogyny. When creating groups of men based on discrepancy scores, I find that the group of men who failed to meet their ideals always, on average, had the highest endorsement of aggression and misogyny, while the group of men whose experiences were higher than their ideals also, on average, had the lowest endorsement of aggression and misogyny. One unexpected finding is that men seem to be rejecting the idea that men cannot express emotions or ask for help; I discuss the implications of this finding.

Urban areas are a unique and growing habitat type. Animals living in this novel habitat are faced with new challenges, but may also encounter novel opportunities. Though urban animals have been observed to differ from their rural counterparts in a variety of behavioral and physiological traits, little is known about the specific features of urban areas that drive these differences and whether they are adaptive. Understanding this process is important from a conservation perspective and also to gain insight into how animals colonize novel habitats more generally. Using song sparrows (Melospiza melodia), a native songbird commonly found in urban areas, I explored responses to urbanization and the drivers and consequences of these responses with an eye toward understanding whether song sparrows had successfully adapted to urban habitats (Chapter I). I began by comparing body condition and levels of corticosterone, a hormone associated with energy management and the stress response in birds, between urban and rural populations (Chapter II). There was more variation across years than between habitats, suggesting that a variable environmental factor common to both habitats is the primary driver of these traits. I then compared territorial aggression levels and tested the effect of food availability on aggression (Chapter III). Fed rural birds and all urban birds had higher aggression levels than unfed rural birds, indicating that territorial aggression is related to resource availability in this species and that urban habitats may be perceived as more desirable. Finally, I looked for differences in reproductive timing and success and for relationships between reproductive success and aggression (Chapter IV). Higher reproductive success in urban populations, coupled with differences in the timing of successful nests between habitats, suggest differences in predation risk and predator community structure between habitats. In Chapter V, I synthesize my major findings and suggest directions for future research building on these results. I conclude that urban song sparrows differ from rural birds, that these differences are influenced by resource availability, and that urban habitats can potentially support stable song sparrow populations, though more research is necessary to determine the fitness impacts of specific traits that change with urbanization. / Ph. D.

Although comorbidity is common between internalizing symptoms such as anxiety and depression and externalizing symptoms such as aggression, the reason for this co-occurrence remains unclear. High negative affect is one factor that has been proposed to explain the connection between anxiety and depression, as well as between these internalizing symptoms and externalizing symptoms including aggression; however, on its own, it may not explain the common association between symptoms. Research on anxiety suggests that effortful control moderates the relationship between negative affect and anxiety. Low levels of effortful control have also been tied to symptoms of depression and aggression. It was hypothesized that effortful control would moderate the impact of negative affect in associations between internalizing symptoms (anxiety and depression) and aggression such that individuals who have both high levels of negative affect and low levels of effortful control will be more likely to experience both internalizing symptoms and aggression. It was further proposed that, among the functional subtypes of aggression, this relationship would hold only for reactive aggression, and not for proactive aggression. These predictions were tested via hierarchical regression analyses of self-report data from a large sample of undergraduate students. Findings suggest that effortful control moderates the relationship between negative affect and depression; however, it functions as an additive predictor for both anxiety and reactive aggression. These findings and their implications are discussed. / Master of Science

The purpose of the current study was to examine the mediating role of social problem solving skills in explaining the relationship between early aggression and later behavior problems. Additionally, the moderational role of social problem solving skills was also examined. The criteria proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) and Holmbeck (1997) were followed to test the mediational and the moderational models. Regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between early aggression and social problem solving skills, social problem solving skills and later behavior problems, and early aggression and later behavior problems. Results indicated that social problem solving skills do not mediate the relationship between early aggression and later behavior problems. However, social problem solving skills do moderate this relationship. Further, it was the number of categories generated as opposed to the number of solutions that was the better predictor. The clinical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed. / Master of Science

This case study aimed to understand adolescent Black girls’ response when becoming angry as related to verbal and physical aggression. The study focused on the triggers for anger of 7 Black girls, current strategies in place at the school to help manage their anger and aggression, and it sought to determine if the girls were able to recognize when they became angry. This information is of importance because the school suspension rate has increased for Black girls (Morris, 2013), and there are limited studies to help them manage their anger in order to feel accepted in schools, develop relationships in schools with teachers and administrators, and to perform better academically. This study used qualitative methods to acquire knowledge of why elementary age Black girls became angry and aggressive in a rural educational setting. The researcher studied anger triggers through usage of anger logs, focus groups, structured interview questions, teacher surveys, and observations. In utilizing these methods, the researcher was able to determine that the girls’ triggers to anger aligned with current research and that there were minimal strategies to help manage anger and aggression in the school setting. The data also help to shed light on how the girls felt at school. The research reveals the need for Black girls to feel safe and accepted in schools, therefore implicating the need for interventions that address the needs of Black girls with anger and aggression concerns. This research also suggested ways to improve school climate in order to foster stronger staff student relationships among Black girls and school staff. Finally, this research shed light on programs that could benefit Black girls in schools to help them feel a sense of belonging.

According to adult attachment theory (Hazan and Shaver, 1987), people's levels of insecure attachment, both anxious and avoidant, are associated with their abilities to regulate emotions in a relational context. This study is the first to test emotion dysregulation as a mediator for the relationships between levels of insecure attachment and psychological aggression using dyadic data. Cross-sectional, self-report data were collected from 110 couples presenting for couple or family therapy at an outpatient clinic. Data were analyzed using path analysis informed by the Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediational Model (APIMeM; Ledermann, Macho and Kenny, 2011). While the findings did not support a mediating role of emotion dysregulation between levels of anxious or avoidant attachment and psychological aggression, results indicated direct partner effects between people's own levels of anxious attachment and their partners' psychological aggression. Higher levels of anxious attachment were associated with higher levels of emotion dysregulation in both males and females; higher levels of avoidant attachment were only associated with higher levels of emotions dysregulation in females. Limitations and clinical implications for couple therapists are discussed. / Master of Science / People have characteristic ways of interacting with their partners when experiencing distressing emotions—described as attachment dimensions—depending on factors like their comfort with vulnerability, self-worth, and confidence in their partners to provide support. Difficulties managing distressing emotions have been linked with psychological aggression between partners. This study examined if and how much difficulties managing emotions explain the relationships between people’s attachment dimensions and psychological aggression between partners. Although difficulties managing emotions did not explain this relationship, they were related to people’s own attachment orientations. People who were preoccupied with seeking reassurance from their partners, and who had low self-concept, were more likely to experience psychological aggression from their partners. Knowing that this way of interacting with partners is linked with increased likelihood of psychological aggression, couple therapists can work with partners to learn strategies to better self-regulate their own emotions and manage reactivity to each other to decrease psychological aggression. <i>Keywords</i>: emotion dysregulation, adult attachment, psychological aggression, couples

This study examined whether spirituality and dyadic coping protected partners from becoming psychologically aggressive toward each other using secondary, cross-sectional data from a sample of 104 couples living in the Washington, DC metropolitan area. The model tested was based on Bodenmann's Systemic Transactional model (1997) and incorporated an Actor-Partner Interdependence Model approach (Kenny, Kashy, & Cook, 2006). SEM results indicated that each partner's spirituality had a direct negative effect on their own psychological aggression, and a direct positive effect on their own supportive dyadic coping, and the couple's common dyadic coping. Each partner's spirituality also had an indirect effect on both partners' psychological aggression through increases in the couple's common dyadic coping. Supportive dyadic coping was not found to mediate the relation between spirituality and psychological aggression. Limitations of the study as well as clinical, programmatic, and research implications are discussed. / Master of Science

Recent efforts to understand and predict the onset and maintenance of aggression have considered the heterogeneity of this behavior. Dodge (1980) and others, have suggested a distinction in aggression based on two primary subtypes: reactive and proactive aggression. The form, severity and persistence of these aggressive subtypes may depend on an on-going interaction between individual characteristics and environmental characteristics that elicit varying antecedents and consequences (Frick, 1998; Lahey et al., 1999). In particular, there exists some empirical support for the existence of relations among social likeability, attributional style, and particular subtypes of aggression symptomology. However, the exact nature of this relation is unclear. The current study examined two competing models, the mediator and moderator models, to assess the nature of the relations among social likeability, attributional style, and aggression subtypes in a sample of 419 youth in a non-clinical community setting. Results suggest that the external, stable, global attributional style serves to mediate the relation between social likeability and reactive, but not proactive aggression. Implications for assessment and treatment of aggression in adolescents are discussed. / Master of Science

Aggression is a heterogeneous behavior that has been conceptualized by two distinct but inter-related functions: proactive and reactive aggression (Dodge, 1991). Proactive aggression has been linked to externalizing behaviors and reactive aggression to internalizing behaviors (Vitaro, Gendreau, Tremblay, & Oligny, 1998). There has been some evidence to suggest that family environment may influence the relationship between the aggressive functions and the related forms of psychopathology (Dodge, 1991). However, given the limited research pertaining to the relationships among aggression, family environment, and subsequent psychopathology, the current study explored the nature of the relationships among these variables in more detail. The present study hypothesized that proactive aggression would be related to externalizing symptoms (delinquency, hyperactivity), and these relationships would be moderated by family conflict. In addition, it was predicted that reactive aggression would be related to internalizing symptoms and inattention, and these relationships would be moderated by family conflict, cohesion, and control. The study included a sample of 135 children and their parents who completed several self-report measures. Overall, the findings did not support the hypotheses, though there was mixed support for the relationship between the aggressive functions and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. / Master of Science

The goal of this dissertation was to examine environmental and biologically-based factors in parents and children that influence child aggression in a non-clinical sample. Externalizing problems are common in childhood and can persist into adolescence and adulthood. If not addressed, externalizing problems can have lasting and costly effects on families and society. Negative parenting and child temperament, specifically negative emotionality, may play a role in the development of child aggression. This study sought to investigate the influence of parental negative talk and child negative emotionality on childhood aggression in 4- and 5-year-old children and examining parent personality as a moderating factor in this process. The sample consisted of 174 twins and triplets and their parents that were recruited from the Southern Illinois Twins/Triplets and Siblings Study (SITTS). Parent negative talk and child aggression were examined during a 10-minute parent-child interaction task, and parent personality and child temperament were assessed via parent-completed questionnaires. Data were analyzed using multilevel regression modeling. Results indicated that parental negative talk and child aggression significantly predicted one another at a single point in time, but do not predict to later levels (e.g., age 4 negative talk predicted age 4 aggression, but not age 5 aggression). Negative talk was shown to be stable between ages 4 and 5. For children low in negative affect, high levels of aggression persisted from age 4 to age 5, whereas this was not true for children high in negative affect. However, children high in negative temperament dimensions were more susceptible to parental negative talk, and children with high temperamental negativity displayed more aggression when they received high levels of negative talk at both age 4 and age 5. Further, child negative temperament and parental neuroticism were correlated. Parents high in neuroticism displayed more negative talk when their children were engaging in more aggression; however, they displayed less negative talk than parents low in neuroticism when their children were engaging in low levels of aggression. Overall, these results have implications for clinical practice in working with children and their families seeking services for aggression at young ages.