No presente trabalho foi desenvolvido o método de padronização de radionuclídeos produzidos em cíclotrons utilizando o sistema de coincidências 4(PC)-NaI(Tl) composto de um contador proporcional operando a 0,1 MPa. Os radionuclídeos selecionados, foram o 201Tl, de uso em medicina nuclear e o 55Fe padrão primário muito utilizado na calibração de espectrômetros de raios-x. O 201Tl desintegra pelo processo de captura eletrônica, seguido pela emissão de radiação gama. A taxa de desintegração foi determinada pela técnica de extrapolação linear da eficiência empregando dois métodos: discriminação eletrônica e absorvedores externos. As fonte radioativas foram preparadas em substratos de Collodion com espessura de 20 g cm-2. O sistema eletrônico utilizado é o convencional para este tipo de medida. Os eventos observados foram registrados empregando o método TAC. O 55Fe desintegra pelo processo de captura eletrônica decaindo diretamente para o estado fundamental do 54Mn, emitindo raios-x com aproximadamente 6 keV. A taxa de desintegração foi determinada pelo método do traçador. Esta técnica foi aplicada utilizando dois radionuclídeos traçadores, que decaem pelo processo de captura eletrônica seguido da emissão de fótons, são eles 51Cr e 54Mn. As medidas foram feitas com 1 e 2 absorvedores de Al com espessura de 150 g cm-2. A atividade foi obtida extrapolando para zero espessura de Al. As incertezas envolvidas e suas correlações foram analisadas seguindo a metodologia de matriz de covariâncias. / In the present work the procedure for the standardization of radionuclides using the 4(PC)-NaI(Tl) coincidence system was developed. The radionuclides selected were 201Tl, used in nuclear medicine, and 55Fe primary standard source, used for x-ray spectrometers calibration. The 4(PC)-NaI(Tl) is composed of a 4 proportional counter operated at 0.1MPa coupled to two NaI(Tl) crystals. The 201Tl decays by electron capture process followed by a prompt gamma-ray. The disintegration rate was determined by extrapolation technique using two methods: electronic discrimination and external absorbers. The radioactive sources were prepared in a 20 g cm-2 thick Collodion film. The conventional electronic system was used. The observed events were registered by the TAC method. The 55Fe decays by electron capture process to the ground state of 55Mn, emitting x-rays with around 6 keV. The standardization was obtained by the tracing method. This technique was applied using two radionuclides, which decay by electron capture process followed by a prompt gamma-ray, namely 51Cr and 54Mn, as tracers. Measurements with 1 and 2 aluminum foils, each 150 g cm-2 thick were carried out. The activity was obtained by extrapolation for zero thickness Al foil. The uncertainties were treated by means of matrix covariance methodology and takes into account all correlations involved.

No presente trabalho foi desenvolvido o método de padronização de radionuclídeos produzidos em cíclotrons utilizando o sistema de coincidências 4(PC)-NaI(Tl) composto de um contador proporcional operando a 0,1 MPa. Os radionuclídeos selecionados, foram o 201Tl, de uso em medicina nuclear e o 55Fe padrão primário muito utilizado na calibração de espectrômetros de raios-x. O 201Tl desintegra pelo processo de captura eletrônica, seguido pela emissão de radiação gama. A taxa de desintegração foi determinada pela técnica de extrapolação linear da eficiência empregando dois métodos: discriminação eletrônica e absorvedores externos. As fonte radioativas foram preparadas em substratos de Collodion com espessura de 20 g cm-2. O sistema eletrônico utilizado é o convencional para este tipo de medida. Os eventos observados foram registrados empregando o método TAC. O 55Fe desintegra pelo processo de captura eletrônica decaindo diretamente para o estado fundamental do 54Mn, emitindo raios-x com aproximadamente 6 keV. A taxa de desintegração foi determinada pelo método do traçador. Esta técnica foi aplicada utilizando dois radionuclídeos traçadores, que decaem pelo processo de captura eletrônica seguido da emissão de fótons, são eles 51Cr e 54Mn. As medidas foram feitas com 1 e 2 absorvedores de Al com espessura de 150 g cm-2. A atividade foi obtida extrapolando para zero espessura de Al. As incertezas envolvidas e suas correlações foram analisadas seguindo a metodologia de matriz de covariâncias. / In the present work the procedure for the standardization of radionuclides using the 4(PC)-NaI(Tl) coincidence system was developed. The radionuclides selected were 201Tl, used in nuclear medicine, and 55Fe primary standard source, used for x-ray spectrometers calibration. The 4(PC)-NaI(Tl) is composed of a 4 proportional counter operated at 0.1MPa coupled to two NaI(Tl) crystals. The 201Tl decays by electron capture process followed by a prompt gamma-ray. The disintegration rate was determined by extrapolation technique using two methods: electronic discrimination and external absorbers. The radioactive sources were prepared in a 20 g cm-2 thick Collodion film. The conventional electronic system was used. The observed events were registered by the TAC method. The 55Fe decays by electron capture process to the ground state of 55Mn, emitting x-rays with around 6 keV. The standardization was obtained by the tracing method. This technique was applied using two radionuclides, which decay by electron capture process followed by a prompt gamma-ray, namely 51Cr and 54Mn, as tracers. Measurements with 1 and 2 aluminum foils, each 150 g cm-2 thick were carried out. The activity was obtained by extrapolation for zero thickness Al foil. The uncertainties were treated by means of matrix covariance methodology and takes into account all correlations involved.

Thesis (Doctoral)--Albert-Ludwigs-Universität zu Freiburg im Breisgau, 1968. / Vita.

Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es zu analysieren, wie Mitarbeitende mit Suizidalität im professionellen Kontext umgehen. Dafür wird die folgende Hauptforschungsfrage gestellt: „Wie gehen Mitarbeitende, die in psychiatrischen oder psychosozialen Versorgungsstrukturen arbeiten, mit der Suizidalität ihrer Klient*innen um?“. Anhand dieser und zwei zusätzlich bestehenden Unterforschungsfragen wird das Erleben und das Bewältigen von suizidalen Ereignissen im Berufsalltag von Mitarbeitenden erforscht, die mit Patientensuizidalität konfrontiert waren. Um zu erfahren, wie und wodurch diese belastet sind und wie entstandene Belastungen bewältigt werden, wurden Expert*inneninterviews mit neun Mitarbeitenden aus der psychiatrisch-psychosozialen Versorgung durchgeführt, welche mittels qualitativer Inhaltsanalyse ausgewertet wurden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass alle Mitarbeitende durch das Erleben suizidaler Ereignisse im Arbeitskontext belastet waren. Die stärksten Prädiktoren für eine Belastungsreaktion scheinen die Suizidform und -methode, die Intensität des Kontaktes zu den Klient*innen, berufliche Unerfahrenheit sowie strukturelle und organisatorische Defizite darzustellen. Vorrangig wurden durch ein suizidales Ereignis negativ bewertete Reaktionen ausgelöst. Dominierend waren hier Gefühle der Schuld, Zweifel an den eigenen Fähigkeiten, Trauer und Schock. In einigen Situationen löste ein suizidales Ereignis hingegen positive Gefühle aus. Vor allem, wenn dieses bewältigt wurde, resultierte dies in einem Zustand der Resilienz. Der größte protektive Faktor ist der Austausch im professionellen und privaten Kontext, der zu einer guten Bewältigung des Ereignisses führen kann. Zusätzlich wurden andere Unterstützungsangebote im professionellen Rahmen genutzt, die jedoch nicht optimal gestaltet waren, um für die Mitarbeitenden so hilfreich zu agieren wie unterstützende Gespräche. Diese Arbeit soll dazu beitragen, dass belastende und protektive Faktoren im Hinblick auf suizidale Ereignisse identifiziert werden, um positiv auf die psychische und physische Gesundheit von Mitarbeitenden einwirken zu können.:Abbildungsverzeichnis ............................................ 5 Tabellenverzeichnis ................................................. 6 Zusammenfassung ................................................. 7 Abstract ................................................................. 8 1. Einleitung ......................................................... 9 2. Theoretischer Hintergrund ................................. 10 2.1 Begriffsbestimmung Suizidalität ........................ 11 2.1.1 Formen des Begriffs Suizidalität ................. 12 2.2 Epidemiologie ................................................. 12 2.2.1 Häufung von Suiziden ................................. 13 2.2.2 Häufung von Patientensuiziden ................. 13 2.2.3 Methodische Probleme beim Erfassen von Suiziden ......................................... 14 2.3 Risikofaktoren für Suizidalität ..........................15 2.3.1 Anzeichen für erhöhte Suizidalität ..................17 2.4 Umgang mit Suizidalität im professionellen Helfersystem .......................................... 18 2.4.1 typische Reaktionen auf Suizidereignisse .......18 2.4.1.1 Belastungsreaktionen .................................. 19 2.4.1.2 Trauerreaktionen .......................................... 23 2.4.1.3 Schuld- und Schamgefühle .......................... 24 2.5 Unterstützungsangebote für Suizidhinterbliebene ...... 24 2.5.1 Allgemeine Unterstützungsangebote für Suizidhinterbliebene................................. 25 2.5.2 Krisenintervention in der Organisation ................... 25 2.5.2.1 empirische Ergebnisse zu hilfreichen Interventionen .................. 26 2.5.2.2 Entlastungsgespräche unter Mitarbeitenden .......................... 27 2.5.2.3 Teambesprechungen ........................................... 28 2.5.2.4 Suizidnachbesprechungen ................................... 28 2.5.2.5 Supervision und Intervision ................................... 28 3. Fragestellung und Ziel der Arbeit ........................... 29 4. Methodik ............................... 30 4.1 Begründung der Forschungsmethode ................... 30 4.2 Sampling ............................... 31 4.3 Methode der Datenerhebung .......... 32 4.4 Methode der Datenanalyse .......... 33 4.4.1 Kodieren des Materials .................. 34 4.4.2 Analyse des kodierten Materials ............................ 35 5. Ergebnisse .......................................... 37 5.1 Stichprobenbeschreibung .................. 37 5.2 Auswertung der einzelnen Kategorien ......................... 38 5.2.1 Kategorie Art des Kontaktes mit Suizidalität ............ 39 5.2.2 Kategorie Belastungsfaktoren ............................ 40 5.2.2.1 Intensität des Kontaktes .................................... 40 5.2.2.2 strukturelle und organisatorische Defizite ............ 41 5.2.2.3 Suizidformen und Suizidmethoden .................... 42 5.2.2.4 berufliche Unerfahrenheit .................................... 43 5.2.2.5 Eigenschaften des/der Klient*in ............................ 44 5.2.2.6 Kontakt mit den Angehörigen ............................ 44 5.2.2.7 Grad der Verantwortung .................................... 45 5.2.2.8 Grund des Suizides ............................................ 45 5.2.2.9 Zeitpunkt des Suizides .................................... 46 5.2.2.10 Qualität und Quantität der sozialen Unterstützung ..... 47 5.2.2.11 eigene Vorbelastung ............................................ 47 5.2.2.12 Auffinden des Suizidopfers ............................ 48 5.2.2.13 Kontaktabbruch zu Klient*innen und deren Umfeld ..... 48 5.2.3 Kategorie Reaktionen auf suizidale Ereignisse ............. 49 5.2.3.1 Schuldgefühle und Zweifel an den eigenen Fähigkeiten .... 49 5.2.3.2 Schock ......................................... 50 5.2.3.3 Gedankenkreisen ......................... 51 5.2.3.4 Trauer ................................................. 51 5.2.3.5 kein Fühlen, nur funktionieren ......... 52 5.2.3.6 Ambivalenz ......................................... 52 5.2.3.7 Überforderung und Hilflosigkeit ......... 52 5.2.3.8 Ärger ................................................. 53 5.2.3.9 körperliche Symptome ................. 53 5.2.3.10 Scham ......................................... 54 5.2.3.11 berufliche Befriedigung ................. 54 5.2.3.12 Erleichterung ................................. 54 5.2.4 Kategorie Einfluss des Erlebten auf die eigene Arbeit ..... 55 5.2.5 Kategorie professionelle Bewältigungsmethoden ............. 57 5.2.6 Kategorie persönliche Bewältigungsmethoden ............. 60 5.2.7 Kategorie Wunsch, um Ereignis besser verarbeiten zu können .... 63 5.2.8 Kategorie Bewertung der eigenen Bewältigung ............................ 66 5.3 Auswertung der Zusammenhänge und Unterschiede .................... 67 6. Diskussion ..................................... 68 6.1 Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse in einem Modell .................... 69 6.2 Interpretation der Ergebnisse ................................... 70 6.2.1 Das Erleben von Suizidalität im professionellen Kontext ............ 70 6.2.2 Die Bewältigung von Suizidalität im professionellen Kontext............. 77 6.3 Gütekriterien .................................. 80 6.4 Limitationen der Arbeit ................. 83 6.5 Ausblick .......................................... 84 6.6 Implikationen für die Praxis .......... 86 7. Fazit .................................................. 87 8. Literaturverzeichnis .......................... 89 Anhang .................................................. 95 Anhang A – Interviewleitfaden .................. 95 Anhang B – Transkriptionsregeln .......... 96 Anhang C - Tabelle der kodierten Segmente mit Summarys .........97 Anhang D - Screenshots zur Datenanalyse ................................ 176 Anhang E - Grafiken zur Epidemiologie .........................................178 / The aim of this study is to analyse how employees deal with suicidality in a professional context. To examine the experience and coping of suicidal events, nine experts, working in psychosocial or psychiatric care, were interviewed. To evaluate the data, a qualitative content analysis was conducted. The results indicate that all employees were mentally or physically affected. The major predictors of a stress reaction were the form and method of suicide, the relationship to the person who died, being new to the job and organisational deficits. Due to a suicidal event, mostly negative reactions were initiated. The most dominant negative reactions were feelings of guilt, feelings of incompetence, grief and shock. However, upcoming feelings in other situations were also positive, especially when overcoming a suicidal event. The most important protective factor is a supportive environment. Support from colleagues, family members and friends proved helpful. Additionally, other supportive offers were used in a professional context. Because of poor organisation they were not considered as helpful as communicating with colleagues or family members. This study contributes to the understanding of burdening and protective factors in terms of suicidal events to positively influence the health of employees.:Abbildungsverzeichnis ............................................ 5 Tabellenverzeichnis ................................................. 6 Zusammenfassung ................................................. 7 Abstract ................................................................. 8 1. Einleitung ......................................................... 9 2. Theoretischer Hintergrund ................................. 10 2.1 Begriffsbestimmung Suizidalität ........................ 11 2.1.1 Formen des Begriffs Suizidalität ................. 12 2.2 Epidemiologie ................................................. 12 2.2.1 Häufung von Suiziden ................................. 13 2.2.2 Häufung von Patientensuiziden ................. 13 2.2.3 Methodische Probleme beim Erfassen von Suiziden ......................................... 14 2.3 Risikofaktoren für Suizidalität ..........................15 2.3.1 Anzeichen für erhöhte Suizidalität ..................17 2.4 Umgang mit Suizidalität im professionellen Helfersystem .......................................... 18 2.4.1 typische Reaktionen auf Suizidereignisse .......18 2.4.1.1 Belastungsreaktionen .................................. 19 2.4.1.2 Trauerreaktionen .......................................... 23 2.4.1.3 Schuld- und Schamgefühle .......................... 24 2.5 Unterstützungsangebote für Suizidhinterbliebene ...... 24 2.5.1 Allgemeine Unterstützungsangebote für Suizidhinterbliebene................................. 25 2.5.2 Krisenintervention in der Organisation ................... 25 2.5.2.1 empirische Ergebnisse zu hilfreichen Interventionen .................. 26 2.5.2.2 Entlastungsgespräche unter Mitarbeitenden .......................... 27 2.5.2.3 Teambesprechungen ........................................... 28 2.5.2.4 Suizidnachbesprechungen ................................... 28 2.5.2.5 Supervision und Intervision ................................... 28 3. Fragestellung und Ziel der Arbeit ........................... 29 4. Methodik ............................... 30 4.1 Begründung der Forschungsmethode ................... 30 4.2 Sampling ............................... 31 4.3 Methode der Datenerhebung .......... 32 4.4 Methode der Datenanalyse .......... 33 4.4.1 Kodieren des Materials .................. 34 4.4.2 Analyse des kodierten Materials ............................ 35 5. Ergebnisse .......................................... 37 5.1 Stichprobenbeschreibung .................. 37 5.2 Auswertung der einzelnen Kategorien ......................... 38 5.2.1 Kategorie Art des Kontaktes mit Suizidalität ............ 39 5.2.2 Kategorie Belastungsfaktoren ............................ 40 5.2.2.1 Intensität des Kontaktes .................................... 40 5.2.2.2 strukturelle und organisatorische Defizite ............ 41 5.2.2.3 Suizidformen und Suizidmethoden .................... 42 5.2.2.4 berufliche Unerfahrenheit .................................... 43 5.2.2.5 Eigenschaften des/der Klient*in ............................ 44 5.2.2.6 Kontakt mit den Angehörigen ............................ 44 5.2.2.7 Grad der Verantwortung .................................... 45 5.2.2.8 Grund des Suizides ............................................ 45 5.2.2.9 Zeitpunkt des Suizides .................................... 46 5.2.2.10 Qualität und Quantität der sozialen Unterstützung ..... 47 5.2.2.11 eigene Vorbelastung ............................................ 47 5.2.2.12 Auffinden des Suizidopfers ............................ 48 5.2.2.13 Kontaktabbruch zu Klient*innen und deren Umfeld ..... 48 5.2.3 Kategorie Reaktionen auf suizidale Ereignisse ............. 49 5.2.3.1 Schuldgefühle und Zweifel an den eigenen Fähigkeiten .... 49 5.2.3.2 Schock ......................................... 50 5.2.3.3 Gedankenkreisen ......................... 51 5.2.3.4 Trauer ................................................. 51 5.2.3.5 kein Fühlen, nur funktionieren ......... 52 5.2.3.6 Ambivalenz ......................................... 52 5.2.3.7 Überforderung und Hilflosigkeit ......... 52 5.2.3.8 Ärger ................................................. 53 5.2.3.9 körperliche Symptome ................. 53 5.2.3.10 Scham ......................................... 54 5.2.3.11 berufliche Befriedigung ................. 54 5.2.3.12 Erleichterung ................................. 54 5.2.4 Kategorie Einfluss des Erlebten auf die eigene Arbeit ..... 55 5.2.5 Kategorie professionelle Bewältigungsmethoden ............. 57 5.2.6 Kategorie persönliche Bewältigungsmethoden ............. 60 5.2.7 Kategorie Wunsch, um Ereignis besser verarbeiten zu können .... 63 5.2.8 Kategorie Bewertung der eigenen Bewältigung ............................ 66 5.3 Auswertung der Zusammenhänge und Unterschiede .................... 67 6. Diskussion ..................................... 68 6.1 Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse in einem Modell .................... 69 6.2 Interpretation der Ergebnisse ................................... 70 6.2.1 Das Erleben von Suizidalität im professionellen Kontext ............ 70 6.2.2 Die Bewältigung von Suizidalität im professionellen Kontext............. 77 6.3 Gütekriterien .................................. 80 6.4 Limitationen der Arbeit ................. 83 6.5 Ausblick .......................................... 84 6.6 Implikationen für die Praxis .......... 86 7. Fazit .................................................. 87 8. Literaturverzeichnis .......................... 89 Anhang .................................................. 95 Anhang A – Interviewleitfaden .................. 95 Anhang B – Transkriptionsregeln .......... 96 Anhang C - Tabelle der kodierten Segmente mit Summarys .........97 Anhang D - Screenshots zur Datenanalyse ................................ 176 Anhang E - Grafiken zur Epidemiologie .........................................178

In this thesis I will be offering an analysis of C.G. Jung’s influence on the theoretical framework of the American comparative mythologist Joseph Campbell. My first main argument will be that Campbell underwent what I am calling a ‘Jungian turn’ around 1968: before this date he was vague and sometimes even dismissive about Jung, while after that date he became suddenly highly positive about Jung’s ideas (particularly about his concept of the archetype). My second main argument will be that this shift in attitude towards Jung occurred because Campbell’s interpretation of Jung changed. Before 1968 Campbell thought of Jung’s concept of the archetype as a ‘closed system’: a completely innate psychological structure that isn’t open to ‘imprinting’ by the environment in any way whatsoever. From 1968 onwards, however, he came to think of the archetype as the equivalent of a so-called ‘open innate-releasing mechanism’, which is the ethologist Konrad Lorenz’s term for a psychological structure that, although it has an innate component as well, is nevertheless open to ‘imprinting’ by the environment. As Campbell’s ideas prior to 1968 had been based on this concept, he realised that his own theoretical framework was compatible with Jung’s to a large extent. My final argument will be that the theoretical position which Campbell arrived at in the final phase of his career (which revolves around the concept of the open innate-releasing mechanism, but which has several other specific characteristics) is the same as the interpretation of Jung put forward by the scholar Anthony Stevens. As Stevens’ work is indisputably Jungian in nature, we might therefore draw the conclusion that it is possible to think of Campbell’s work as ‘Jungian’ in nature as well. However, as there are also some important differences between Campbell and Jung, I am arguing instead that we think of Campbell’s work in the final phase of his career as ‘post-Jungian’: this is the scholar Andrew Samuel’s term for a thinker who may not agree with Jung about every single issue, but whose work is still firmly rooted in his core ideas.

My thesis includes the development of two novel anticancer agents based on natural products; OSW-1 analog (ZJ-201) and truncated Superstolide A analog (ZJ-102). OSW-1 is isolated from the bulbs of Ornithogalum saundersiae. It exhibits an extremely potent anticancer activity against a wide spectrum of cancer cells. Relatively, its anticancer activities are about 10-100 times more potent than many well-known anticancer drugs in clinical use. However, the promise of OSW-1 is dampened by its relatively weak in vivo anticancer activity. We hypothesize that the loss of two ester groups on OSW-1 in mouse causes a discrepancy in its in vivo efficacy. Therefore, replacing both ester groups in the disaccharide portion of OSW-1 with bioisosteric amides should significantly reduce the rate of metabolism and greatly improve its in vivo anticancer activity. This dissertation includes the synthesis of amide analog of OSW-1, ZJ-201. The synthetic route described in this thesis is characterized by its flexibility to synthesize multiple amino analogs of OSW-1. ZJ-201 will be evaluated for its in vitro cytotoxicity, metabolic stability and pharmacokinetic properties. The biological data obtained will enable us to get insights into the SAR of OSW-1 and assist in transforming OSW-1 into a clinically agent. Superstolide A is a highly potent anticancer agent isolated from marine sponge Neosiphonia superstes. In 2013, Jin’s lab reported the design and synthesis of truncated Superstolide A (ZJ-101) in 15 steps with a yield of 6.2%. In vitro cytotoxicity studies showed that ZJ-101 maintains and sometimes exceeds the potent anticancer activity of the parent natural product. As this is the first active analog of Superstolide A reported, there is a need to develop additional analogs of ZJ-101 to probe into the SAR of this anticancer agent. This dissertation includes the synthesis of aromatic analog of truncated Superstolide A, ZJ-102. In vitro cytotoxicity studies showed that ZJ-201 demonstrated poor antiproliferative properties in comparison to ZJ-101. Hence, we can conclude that the cyclohexene ring of ZJ-101 cannot be simplified to an aromatic core as it significantly affects anticancer activity.

No description available.

ISO 9000 Quality Management Standards Series aims to improve the products and services regarding customer satisfaction. The main purpose is to increase quality. On the other hand, having a special importance to mining, OHSAS 18000 Occupational Health and Safety Assessment System Series aims to provide safer, more tranquil and more healthy working environment to the labors. Both of these management systems are continuously improved and increase their importance in the world. This study evaluates ISO 9000 and OHSAS 18000 series in a comparative and criticizing scope and complementariness of the standards to each other is examined. Existing conditions in our country are determined in mining perspective and some comments are given to improve existing condition. Literatural information is given about both of the series in the study and these information is supported by some case studies. Case studies covers not only, a leading company in Turkey namely MANGAN Marble &amp / Granite Inc. but also some other companies and establishments. Studies show that there are some problems observed in the implementation of both series. The main problem is commitment of the top management. Other problems are documentation and training of the personnel. These problems are more serious in small scale mining companies and quarries. Although existance of these problems is highly possible in the mining companies applying ISO 9000 and OHSAS 18000 series are very beneficial regarding the increase in the quality of products and therefore it&amp / #65533 / s advantages and in providing a healthy and safe working environment and become a necessity.

In this thesis I am investigating the religious ideas of Ramakrishna, Vivekananda, H. P. Blavatsky and Annie Besant as examples of early approaches to religious pluralism. In this context, the term ‘religious pluralism’ refers to the belief that all religious traditions are paths to genuine religious ends. Thus, religions other than one’s own are considered to be of significance to people of all faiths and even to those who are not believers. I relate the appearance of these early notions of religious pluralism to the historical and ideological setting in which they were proposed, particularly the late nineteenth-century debate about science and religion in the West and its spheres of influence. I argue that theories of evolution, in addition to the emerging field of historical biblical criticism, presented a serious challenge to traditional understandings of religion. Together, these two strands of thought made a strong case for a purely materialistic worldview and for the further development of modern sciences on such a basis. In response to this crisis of religion, the four thinkers proposed religious teachings inspired by their own intense religious experience. They emphasised the experiential aspect of these teachings in order to claim an epistemic status of religious knowledge equal to that of scientific or empirical knowledge. In order to universalise this claim, they appealed to religious experience and religious knowledge originating in all faith traditions. In my assessment of these arguments I suggest that the two main thinkers, i.e. Ramakrishna and Blavatsky, may have been led towards pluralistic ideas of religion through their endorsement of the esoteric traditions of Tantrism and Hermeticism, respectively. Moreover, I trace the impact of the British colonial presence in India on the content, presentation and reception of the teachings of all four thinkers. I conclude that the teachings of Ramakrishna et al. represent early attempts to engage with the fact of religious plurality from a religious perspective. Thus, the four thinkers encouraged people to relate to the beliefs and practices of other faiths and to explore them in relation to their own life. These early efforts in interreligious understanding represented the initial steps towards our current debates about religious pluralism and interreligious dialogue.

No description available.