Ce travail constitue une première étape dans la compréhension et la modélisation du comportement de contacts en frottement dans un environnement corrosif. On s'intéresse plus particulièrement à des stsructures évoluant en milieu marin.<br /><br />La première partie fait une large part à l'expérimentation, avec le développement d'un moyen d'essai original, et précise l'importance relative des phénomènes électrochimiques et mécaniques pour un contact ponctuel acier inoxydable / alumine en milieu neutre chloruré (NaCl 30 g/l). Le deuxième volet s'est attaché au développement d'une modélisation par équations intégrales des problèmes de contacts ponctuels entre des structures élastoplastiques homogènes ou revêtues en frottement continu.

The present work aims to reveal the microstructural evolution and post-processing mechanical behavior of difficult-to-work alloys upon severe plastic deformation. Severe plastic deformation is applied using equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) where billets are pressed through a 90o corner die achieving simple shear deformation. Three different materials are studied in this research, namely Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-4V reinforced with 10% TiC and AISI 316L stainless steel. Microstructure and mechanical properties of successfully extruded billets were reported using light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), tension and compression experiments and microhardness measurements. The effects of extrusion conditions (temperature and processing route) on the microstructure and mechanical properties are investigated. The underlying mechanisms responsible for observed mechanical behaviors are explored. It is seen that ECAE shear deformation leads to refinement in α plates and elimination of prior β boundaries in Ti-6Al-4V. Decreasing extrusion temperature and increasing number of passes decreases α plate size and grain size. Refined α grain size leads to a significant increase in tensile and compressive flow stresses at room temperature. Texture produced by ECAE has a pronounced effect on mechanical properties. Specifically it leads to tension/compression asymmetry in flow strengths and strain hardening coefficients may be described by the activation of differing slip systems under tension and compression loading. ECAE of Ti-6Al-4V+10%TiC samples also improved mechanical properties due to α plate size refinement. Nevertheless, further extrusion passes should be carried out for tailoring reinforcement size and distribution providing optimum strength and ductility. ECAE deformation of AISI 316L stainless steel at high homologous temperatures (0.55 to 0.60 Tm) results in deformation twinning as an effective deformation mechanism which is attributed to the effect of the high stress levels on the partial dislocation separation. Deformation twinning gives rise to high stress levels during post-processing room temperature tension and compression experiments by providing additional barriers to dislocation motion and decreasing the mean free path of dislocations. The highest tensile flow stress observed in the sample processed at 700 oC following one pass route A was on the order of 1200 MPa which is very high for 316L stainless steel. The ultimate goal of this study is to produce stabilized end microstructures with improved mechanical properties and demonstrate the applicability of ECAE on difficult-to-work alloys.

The present work aims to reveal the microstructural evolution and post-processing mechanical behavior of difficult-to-work alloys upon severe plastic deformation. Severe plastic deformation is applied using equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) where billets are pressed through a 90o corner die achieving simple shear deformation. Three different materials are studied in this research, namely Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-4V reinforced with 10% TiC and AISI 316L stainless steel. Microstructure and mechanical properties of successfully extruded billets were reported using light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), tension and compression experiments and microhardness measurements. The effects of extrusion conditions (temperature and processing route) on the microstructure and mechanical properties are investigated. The underlying mechanisms responsible for observed mechanical behaviors are explored. It is seen that ECAE shear deformation leads to refinement in α plates and elimination of prior β boundaries in Ti-6Al-4V. Decreasing extrusion temperature and increasing number of passes decreases α plate size and grain size. Refined α grain size leads to a significant increase in tensile and compressive flow stresses at room temperature. Texture produced by ECAE has a pronounced effect on mechanical properties. Specifically it leads to tension/compression asymmetry in flow strengths and strain hardening coefficients may be described by the activation of differing slip systems under tension and compression loading. ECAE of Ti-6Al-4V+10%TiC samples also improved mechanical properties due to α plate size refinement. Nevertheless, further extrusion passes should be carried out for tailoring reinforcement size and distribution providing optimum strength and ductility. ECAE deformation of AISI 316L stainless steel at high homologous temperatures (0.55 to 0.60 Tm) results in deformation twinning as an effective deformation mechanism which is attributed to the effect of the high stress levels on the partial dislocation separation. Deformation twinning gives rise to high stress levels during post-processing room temperature tension and compression experiments by providing additional barriers to dislocation motion and decreasing the mean free path of dislocations. The highest tensile flow stress observed in the sample processed at 700 oC following one pass route A was on the order of 1200 MPa which is very high for 316L stainless steel. The ultimate goal of this study is to produce stabilized end microstructures with improved mechanical properties and demonstrate the applicability of ECAE on difficult-to-work alloys.

Prestressed concrete piles are commonly used to support over-water highway bridges in marine environments. The reinforcing steel within will ultimately be degraded via corrosion damage due to the penetration of chloride ions from sea water. The service life of these structures is, in part, dictated by the time required to diffuse chloride ions through the concrete cover and subsequently corrode the steel. Therefore, by slowing the rate of diffusion or increasing the chloride threshold of the steel (or both) an increased service life can be expected. This thesis focuses on the latter whereby stainless steel reinforcing alternatives were investigated to elevate the chloride threshold before corrosion begins. The designation "stainless" steel implies corrosion resistance. However, corrosion resistance in itself is not a sufficient condition to make it a suitable alternative for prestressed concrete applications. In this study, the corrosion susceptibility of stainless steel alloys was scrutinized with the understanding that high strength stainless steels are vulnerable to stress corrosion cracking (SCC). This investigation screened three candidate alloys that span the norms of stainless steel compositions: a common austenitic stainless steel with high nickel content (316L), a less common austenitic stainless steel with low nickel but high manganese (XM 29), and a duplex stainless steel with high chromium and an additional constituent, molybdenum (2205). Each alloy was subjected to two stress conditions imposed by varied mechanical fixtures then subjected to various forms of high chloride concentrations. The pH of these conditions was also varied and in one case simulated the high pH common to concrete pore water solutions. Elevated temperatures were used to accelerate the effects of these exposures. Results of Phase 1 showed that for exposure at 135oC (275oF) cracking of alloys 316 L and 2205 occurred after 1 hour while XM29 experience cracking after 24 hours. At 90oC (194oF) alloy 316L cracked after 4 hours; XM29 did not crack after 96 hours while 2205 did crack after 96 hours. The results were interpreted with an Arrhenius relationship between time to cracking and test temperature to extrapolate toward the anticipated service regime. Results of Phase 2 showed that SCC was less likely to initiate in high pH conditions than in low pH conditions at typical marine environment temperatures and chloride concentration. In these limited tests the SCC performance of XM29 was better relative to that of the other two alloys.

Les conduites primaires des centrales nucléaires REP (304L et 316L) sont protégées contre la corrosion par une couche d'oxyde. Ces conduites, qui forment une barrière entre le milieu primaire et l'extérieur, subissent des phénomènes liés à la corrosion sous contrainte (assisté ou non par irradiation) pouvant entrainer des dommages. L'objectif de cette étude est de comprendre les phénomènes régissant les stades initiaux de formation des couches d'oxydes sur ces alliages en tenant compte de l'orientation cristallographique des grains sous-jacents. En utilisant des techniques de caractérisation avancées comme GIXRD, spectroscopie Raman, XPS, MEB et MET (BF, HRTEM, Astar, EELS et HREELS), sur les toutes premières étapes de l'oxydation, une séquence d'oxydation a été proposée pour l'alliage 316L.

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O presente estudo analisa dois tipos de aços inoxidáveis, o Austenítico AISI 316L e o Duplex AISI 318, para a fabricação de biorreatores. Esses aços possuem propriedades físicas e químicas que podem suprir as necessidades de resistências mecânicas e anticorrosivas dos ambientes dos biorreatores anaeróbicos. Para comparar os dois tipos de aço, foram feitos testes das propriedades mecânicas e químicas antes e depois da exposição ao ambiente de biorreação. Um protótipo de biorreator foi projetado no software Autodesk Inventor 2013 e construído com uma das ligas metálicas em estudo, o aço AISI 316L, criando um ambiente favorável aos testes de campo. Para tal utilizou-se processos de conformação e união de chapas por rebitagem e soldagem. As amostras dos aços para os testes mecânicos e de corrosão foram preparadas e inseridas no biorreator onde permaneceram por 14 meses. Os resultados dos ensaios mostraram que não houve alterações significativas nas propriedades mecânicas dos aços Duplex, porém as amostras de aço Austenítico apresentaram aumento na tensão de escoamento, na tensão limite de resistência e no módulo de elasticidade, demonstrando aumento na rigidez do material após a biorreação. Quanto às propriedades anticorrosivas os resultados apresentam uma leve vantagem do aço Duplex AISI 318 em relação ao Austenítico AISI 316L. Em relação à construção, os aços Austeníticos, por serem mais dúcteis, possuem melhor conformação; o Duplex AISI 318, por ter maior resistência mecânica, possibilita a construção com chapas mais finas, o que acarreta em redução de peso final do biorreator. O aço AISI 318 apresenta maior estabilidade nas propriedades mecânicas do que o AISI 316L. A relação favorável de custo-benefício da aplicação dos aços inoxidáveis na construção de biorreatores anaeróbios é comprovada pelas plantas de produção de biogás existentes em várias partes do mundo, principalmente na Europa. / The present study analyzes two kinds stainless steel, the Austenitic AISI 316L and the Duplex AISI 318 for manufacturing bioreactors. These kinds of stainless steel have the physical and chemical properties to meet the need the anticorrosive and mechanical resistances from the anaerobic bioreactors environments. Before and after the exposition to the bioreaction environment, both kinds of stainless steel were compared by testing their mechanical and chemical properties. A prototype bioreactor was designed in Autodesk Inventor 2013 software and built with on of the alloys in study, the AISI 316L, creating a favorable environment for fielding testing. For this purpose, we used the processes of forming and joining the plates by riveting and welding. The stainless steel samples for the mechanical and corrosion tests were prepared and placed in the bioreactor and they stayed there for fourteen months. Results show that there weren't significant changes in the mechanical properties of Duplex steel. However, Austenitic steel samples showed an increase in yield strength, resistence limit and in the elastic modulus, demonstrating an increase in the stiffness of the materials after bioreaction. The results show that there were not significant changes in mechanical properties, as the corrosive properties, results show a slight advantages of Duplex 318 compared to Austenitic AISI 316L. Regarding the construction, the Austenitic steel has better conformation, because it is more ductile and the Duplex steel has greater mechanical resistance and it enables the construction with thinner plates. Thus, the bioreactor becomes lighter. The AISI 318 steel has higher stability in mechanical properties than AISI 316L. The cost-benefit of the application of stainless steel in the construction of anaerobic bioreactors is proven by production plants of biogas worldwide, mainly in Europe.

O presente estudo analisa dois tipos de aços inoxidáveis, o Austenítico AISI 316L e o Duplex AISI 318, para a fabricação de biorreatores. Esses aços possuem propriedades físicas e químicas que podem suprir as necessidades de resistências mecânicas e anticorrosivas dos ambientes dos biorreatores anaeróbicos. Para comparar os dois tipos de aço, foram feitos testes das propriedades mecânicas e químicas antes e depois da exposição ao ambiente de biorreação. Um protótipo de biorreator foi projetado no software Autodesk Inventor 2013 e construído com uma das ligas metálicas em estudo, o aço AISI 316L, criando um ambiente favorável aos testes de campo. Para tal utilizou-se processos de conformação e união de chapas por rebitagem e soldagem. As amostras dos aços para os testes mecânicos e de corrosão foram preparadas e inseridas no biorreator onde permaneceram por 14 meses. Os resultados dos ensaios mostraram que não houve alterações significativas nas propriedades mecânicas dos aços Duplex, porém as amostras de aço Austenítico apresentaram aumento na tensão de escoamento, na tensão limite de resistência e no módulo de elasticidade, demonstrando aumento na rigidez do material após a biorreação. Quanto às propriedades anticorrosivas os resultados apresentam uma leve vantagem do aço Duplex AISI 318 em relação ao Austenítico AISI 316L. Em relação à construção, os aços Austeníticos, por serem mais dúcteis, possuem melhor conformação; o Duplex AISI 318, por ter maior resistência mecânica, possibilita a construção com chapas mais finas, o que acarreta em redução de peso final do biorreator. O aço AISI 318 apresenta maior estabilidade nas propriedades mecânicas do que o AISI 316L. A relação favorável de custo-benefício da aplicação dos aços inoxidáveis na construção de biorreatores anaeróbios é comprovada pelas plantas de produção de biogás existentes em várias partes do mundo, principalmente na Europa. / The present study analyzes two kinds stainless steel, the Austenitic AISI 316L and the Duplex AISI 318 for manufacturing bioreactors. These kinds of stainless steel have the physical and chemical properties to meet the need the anticorrosive and mechanical resistances from the anaerobic bioreactors environments. Before and after the exposition to the bioreaction environment, both kinds of stainless steel were compared by testing their mechanical and chemical properties. A prototype bioreactor was designed in Autodesk Inventor 2013 software and built with on of the alloys in study, the AISI 316L, creating a favorable environment for fielding testing. For this purpose, we used the processes of forming and joining the plates by riveting and welding. The stainless steel samples for the mechanical and corrosion tests were prepared and placed in the bioreactor and they stayed there for fourteen months. Results show that there weren't significant changes in the mechanical properties of Duplex steel. However, Austenitic steel samples showed an increase in yield strength, resistence limit and in the elastic modulus, demonstrating an increase in the stiffness of the materials after bioreaction. The results show that there were not significant changes in mechanical properties, as the corrosive properties, results show a slight advantages of Duplex 318 compared to Austenitic AISI 316L. Regarding the construction, the Austenitic steel has better conformation, because it is more ductile and the Duplex steel has greater mechanical resistance and it enables the construction with thinner plates. Thus, the bioreactor becomes lighter. The AISI 318 steel has higher stability in mechanical properties than AISI 316L. The cost-benefit of the application of stainless steel in the construction of anaerobic bioreactors is proven by production plants of biogas worldwide, mainly in Europe.

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Le procédé de fabrication directe par projection laser (FDPL), est un procédé de fabrication additive qui permet de fabriquer des pièces de forme complexe directement à partir d'un fichier CAO, sans outil et sans moule. L'un de ses inconvénients majeurs est la mauvaise qualité des états de surface obtenus (Ra supérieur à 15 μm) qui nécessite systématiquement des étapes de ré-usinage. Dans ce contexte, et dans le cadre du projet ANR « ASPECT », cette thèse a pour double objectif une meilleure compréhension de l'origine des états de surface dégradés, et le développement de différentes solutions expérimentales innovantes permettant d'améliorer les états de surface.Dans un premier temps, en considérant des géométries simples (murs) en alliage de titane Ti-6Al-4V, nous avons étudié l'interaction faisceau laser / jet de poudre / bain liquide métallique par différents diagnostics (caméra rapide, caméra thermique, pyrométrie…) pour comprendre l'évolution de la géométrie, la thermique et l'hydrodynamique de la zone fondue (ZF). Ces analyses nous ont permis de corréler les évolutions des ZF à celles des états de surface, et de mettre en évidence, sur le Ti-6Al-4V la prépondérance des effets de tension superficielle sur les effets de gravité, dans l'équilibre des ZF, et l'effet bénéfique de zones fondues larges et profondes combinées à de faibles hauteurs par couche, dans la réduction des micro et macro-rugosités. La réduction du débit massique local Dm* en vis-à-vis des parois latérales et l'augmentation du rayon de courbure des ZF avec l'élargissement des ZF (donc avec des rapports El= P/V (J/m) élevés) sont à l'origine des effets bénéfiques obtenus. Différents modèles analytiques et numériques ont également été utilisés ou développés, en complément des résultats expérimentaux, pour décrire le procédé (modèle d'interaction laser-poudre, modèle numérique thermique 3D du procédé, modèle de calcul des ondulations périodiques).En utilisant un large spectre de conditions expérimentales, et une caractérisation rigoureuse des conditions de fabrication (analyses de faisceau, de jet de poudre …) nous avons également apporté des améliorations notables à la qualité des états de surface obtenus. Ainsi, l'utilisation d'un éclairement laser uniforme plutôt que quasi-Gaussien, ou l'utilisation d'un régime quasi-pulsé plutôt que continu ont permis, sur le Ti-6Al-4V de réduire significativement les gradients thermiques en ZF et les mouvements de convection de Marangoni associés, et d'obtenir des qualités d'états de surface fortement améliorées (Ra< 3 µm) par rapport aux études antérieures sur le sujet.Pour finir, une partie de l'étude s'est concentrée sur l'utilisation d'un autre matériau: l'acier inoxydable 316L, afin d'analyser l'influence de la nature chimique et des propriétés thermo-physiques de la poudre projetée sur la qualité des états de surface. Les résultats ont montré que, contrairement à l'alliage de titane, les meilleures rugosités étaient obtenues pour les énergies linéiques El (J/m) les plus faibles, en raison de la formation, à El élevé, de macro-agglomérats de poudre sur les parois des murs. Ce résultat confirme la difficulté d'une approche prédictive globale des états de surface à partir des paramètres thermo-physiques des matériaux projetés. / The process of direct manufacturing by projection laser ( FDPL), is a process of additive manufacturing which allows to make rooms(parts,plays) of complex shape directly from a file CAD, without tool and without mold(mussel). One of its major inconveniences is the bad quality of the states of surface obtained (Ra upper to 15 µm) which requires systematically stages of remanufacturing. In this context, and within the framework of the project ANR " aspect ", this thesis(theory) has for double objective a better understanding of the origin of the degraded states of surface, and the development of various innovative experimental solutions allowing to improve the states of surface. At first, by considering simple geometries (walls) in alloy of titanium Ti-6Al-4V, we studied the interaction