In diesem Beitrag wird ein Vergleich zwischen indirekten Testmethoden zur Bewertung der Verbaubarkeit von 3D-gedruckten Mörteln und Betonen vorgestellt. Die Untersuchungen erfolgten an extrudierten Proben von acht zementbasierten Mischungen mit unterschiedlichem rheologischen Verhalten. Auf der Basis der erzielten Ergebnisse werden Vorhersagen zum Material- bzw. Stabilitätsversagen getroffen und mit den Ergebnissen des Direktdruckversuchs verglichen. Anschließend werden die Vor- und Nachteile unterschiedlicher Prüfmethoden diskutiert. Zu diesen zählen die Techniken der Rotationsrheometrie mit konstanter Rotationsgeschwindigkeit (engl.: constant rotational velocity, CRV), ein schneller Penetrationstest sowie einaxiale Druckversuche mit und ohne Querdehnungsbehinderung.

Die 3D-Drucktechnologie bietet eine Möglichkeit zur digitalen Funktionalisierung textiler Substrate. Jedoch hemmen fehlende Grundlagen, die geringe Materialpalette für textile Anwendungen, hohe Investitionskosten und lange Druckzeiten den Einsatz in der Textilindustrie. Die Arbeit befasst sich mit verschiedenen Einflüssen auf die Haftfestigkeit von 3D-Druck-Textil-Verbunden. Zudem werden die Effekte der 3D-Druckschichten auf die Eigenschaften der Textilien ermittelt. Dafür werden vier Gewebe und zwei Gestricke durch drei Druckmodule mit drei thermoplastischen Filamenten, einem thermoplastischen Granulat sowie einem Silikonkautschuk bedruckt. Die Einflüsse der Faktoren Textilart, Faserstoff, Textilausrichtung, Textildicke und -oberfläche sowie die Druckmodule mit den verarbeitbaren Druckmaterialien werden experimentell untersucht. Die größten signifikanten Effekte auf die Haftfestigkeit hat die Materialwahl, wobei der Effekt des Druckmaterials größer ist als der Einfluss des Textils. Die Druckschichten beeinflussen die textilen Eigenschaften unterschiedlich stark. Die thermoplastischen Materialien erhöhen die breitenbezogene Biegesteifigkeit der Textilien je nach Druckmaterial und Schichtdicke. Das Zugverhalten der Substrate wird durch die Druckschichten bis auf einzelne Ausnahmen kaum beeinflusst. Die Abriebbeständigkeit der Textilien kann durch 3D-gedruckte Strukturen soweit erhöht werden, dass sie Scheuerversuchen mit erhöhten Anforderungen gegenüber Sandpapier standhalten. Insgesamt ergänzt die Arbeit den Forschungsstand um Erkenntnisse zum 3D-Druck auf Textilien mithilfe unterschiedlicher Druckmodule. Zur verwendbaren Materialpalette gehören auch in anderen Veredlungsprozessen verwendete Materialien. Beispiele und Druckmuster veranschaulichen Anwendungspotenziale in den Bereichen der Sport-, Arbeits- und technischen Textilien.:Abkürzungen und Symbole Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 2 Theoretische Grundlagen 2.1 Begriffe und Verfahren in der additiven Fertigung 2.1.1 Polymerisation/Stereolithographie 2.1.2 Sintern und Schmelzen 2.1.3 Extrusionsverfahren/Schmelzschichtung 2.2 Forschungsstand der additiven Fertigungsverfahren in der Textilindustrie 2.2.1 Textil- bzw. Bekleidungsherstellung 2.2.2 Textilmodifikation 2.2.3 Zusammenfassung zum Forschungsstand 2.3 Überblick zur Haftfestigkeit 2.4 Zielstellung 3 Maschinentechnik, Materialien und Methoden 3.1 Versuchsanlage am STFI 3.1.1 Filamentextruder 3.1.2 Nadelventil 3.1.3 Dispensersystem 3.2 Materialien 3.2.1 Textile Substrate 3.2.2 Druckmaterialien 3.3 Versuchsplanung und -durchführung 3.3.1 Datenvorbereitung und Druckparameter 3.3.2 Versuchsplanung 3.3.3 Prüfverfahren 3.4 Methoden der statistischen Auswertung 4 Untersuchung zur Haftfestigkeit 4.1 Einzeleffekte des Drucksubstrats 4.2 Einzeleffekte des Druckmaterials 4.3 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zu den Einzeleffekten auf die Haftfestigkeit 4.4 Interaktion der Parameter unterschieden nach Wahl des Textils 4.5 Interaktion der Parameter unterschieden nach verwendetem Druckmodul 4.6 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zur Haftfestigkeit 5 Charakterisierung der hergestellten Verbunde 5.1 Qualitative Beurteilung der Grenzflächen durch mikroskopische Aufnahmen 5.2 Dickenabweichung von der Sollschichtdicke 5.2.1 Abweichung von der Solldicke der reinen Druckschichten 5.2.2 Abweichung von der Sollschichtdicke der bedruckten Textilien 5.2.3 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zur Dickenabweichung von der Sollschichtdicke 6 Einfluss der applizierten 3D-Druckschichten auf die textilen Eigenschaften 6.1 Einfluss auf die Biegesteifigkeit 6.1.1 Biegesteifigkeiten der Ausgangsmaterialien 6.1.2 Biegesteifigkeiten der bedruckten Textilien 6.1.3 Einfluss der Biegerichtung auf die Biegesteifigkeiten 6.1.4 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zur Biegesteifigkeit 6.2 Einfluss auf das Zugverhalten 6.2.1 Zugverhalten der Ausgangsmaterialien 6.2.2 Zugverhalten der bedruckten Textilien 6.2.3 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zum Zugverhalten 6.3 Einfluss auf das Abriebverhalten 6.3.1 Abriebverhalten der Ausgangsmaterialien 6.3.2 Abriebverhalten der bedruckten Textilien 6.3.3 Einfluss der verwendeten Druckgeometrie auf das Abriebverhalten 6.3.4 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zum Abriebverhalten 6.4 Waschbeständigkeit der bedruckten Textilien 7 Bewertung der erzielten Ergebnisse 7.1 Bewertung und Vergleich der Ergebnisse mit dem Forschungsstand 7.2 Anwendungsmöglichkeiten des 3D-Drucks auf textilen Substraten 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 9 Literaturverzeichnis 10 Anhang 10.1 Anhang zum Kapitel Methoden der statistischen Auswertung 10.2 Anhang zum Kapitel Haftfestigkeit 10.3 Anhang zum Kapitel Mikroskopie 10.4 Anhang zum Kapitel Dickenabweichung 10.5 Anhang zum Kapitel Biegesteifigkeit 10.6 Anhang zum Kapitel Zugverhalten 10.7 Anhang zum Kapitel Abriebverhalten / 3D printing technology offers an opportunity for digital functionalization of textile substrates. But lack of fundamentals, the small range of materials for textile applications, high investment costs and long printing times inhibit its use in the textile industry. This thesis addresses various influences on the adhesion strength of 3D printed textile composites. In addition, the effects of the 3D printed layers on the properties of the textiles are determined. For this purpose, four woven and two knitted fabrics are printed by three printing modules with three thermoplastic filaments, one thermoplastic granulate and one silicone rubber. The influences of the factors textile type, fiber material, textile orientation, textile thickness and surface as well as the printing modules with the processable printing materials are investigated experimentally. The greatest significant effects on adhesion are due to the choice of material, with the effect of the printing material being greater than the influence of the textile. The printing layers affect the textile properties to different degrees. The thermoplastic materials increase the width-related bending stiffness of the textiles depending on the printing material and layer thickness. With a few exceptions, the tensile behavior of the substrates is hardly affected by the printing layers. The abrasion resistance of the textiles can be increased by 3D-printed structures to such an extent that they can withstand abrasion tests with increased requirements compared to sandpaper. All in all, the work adds to the state of research knowledge on 3D printing on textiles using different printing modules. The range of materials that can be printed also includes materials used in other finishing processes. Examples and printed samples illustrate potential applications in the fields of sports, work and technical textiles.:Abkürzungen und Symbole Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 2 Theoretische Grundlagen 2.1 Begriffe und Verfahren in der additiven Fertigung 2.1.1 Polymerisation/Stereolithographie 2.1.2 Sintern und Schmelzen 2.1.3 Extrusionsverfahren/Schmelzschichtung 2.2 Forschungsstand der additiven Fertigungsverfahren in der Textilindustrie 2.2.1 Textil- bzw. Bekleidungsherstellung 2.2.2 Textilmodifikation 2.2.3 Zusammenfassung zum Forschungsstand 2.3 Überblick zur Haftfestigkeit 2.4 Zielstellung 3 Maschinentechnik, Materialien und Methoden 3.1 Versuchsanlage am STFI 3.1.1 Filamentextruder 3.1.2 Nadelventil 3.1.3 Dispensersystem 3.2 Materialien 3.2.1 Textile Substrate 3.2.2 Druckmaterialien 3.3 Versuchsplanung und -durchführung 3.3.1 Datenvorbereitung und Druckparameter 3.3.2 Versuchsplanung 3.3.3 Prüfverfahren 3.4 Methoden der statistischen Auswertung 4 Untersuchung zur Haftfestigkeit 4.1 Einzeleffekte des Drucksubstrats 4.2 Einzeleffekte des Druckmaterials 4.3 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zu den Einzeleffekten auf die Haftfestigkeit 4.4 Interaktion der Parameter unterschieden nach Wahl des Textils 4.5 Interaktion der Parameter unterschieden nach verwendetem Druckmodul 4.6 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zur Haftfestigkeit 5 Charakterisierung der hergestellten Verbunde 5.1 Qualitative Beurteilung der Grenzflächen durch mikroskopische Aufnahmen 5.2 Dickenabweichung von der Sollschichtdicke 5.2.1 Abweichung von der Solldicke der reinen Druckschichten 5.2.2 Abweichung von der Sollschichtdicke der bedruckten Textilien 5.2.3 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zur Dickenabweichung von der Sollschichtdicke 6 Einfluss der applizierten 3D-Druckschichten auf die textilen Eigenschaften 6.1 Einfluss auf die Biegesteifigkeit 6.1.1 Biegesteifigkeiten der Ausgangsmaterialien 6.1.2 Biegesteifigkeiten der bedruckten Textilien 6.1.3 Einfluss der Biegerichtung auf die Biegesteifigkeiten 6.1.4 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zur Biegesteifigkeit 6.2 Einfluss auf das Zugverhalten 6.2.1 Zugverhalten der Ausgangsmaterialien 6.2.2 Zugverhalten der bedruckten Textilien 6.2.3 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zum Zugverhalten 6.3 Einfluss auf das Abriebverhalten 6.3.1 Abriebverhalten der Ausgangsmaterialien 6.3.2 Abriebverhalten der bedruckten Textilien 6.3.3 Einfluss der verwendeten Druckgeometrie auf das Abriebverhalten 6.3.4 Zusammenfassung der Erkenntnisse zum Abriebverhalten 6.4 Waschbeständigkeit der bedruckten Textilien 7 Bewertung der erzielten Ergebnisse 7.1 Bewertung und Vergleich der Ergebnisse mit dem Forschungsstand 7.2 Anwendungsmöglichkeiten des 3D-Drucks auf textilen Substraten 8 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 9 Literaturverzeichnis 10 Anhang 10.1 Anhang zum Kapitel Methoden der statistischen Auswertung 10.2 Anhang zum Kapitel Haftfestigkeit 10.3 Anhang zum Kapitel Mikroskopie 10.4 Anhang zum Kapitel Dickenabweichung 10.5 Anhang zum Kapitel Biegesteifigkeit 10.6 Anhang zum Kapitel Zugverhalten 10.7 Anhang zum Kapitel Abriebverhalten

An aqueous droplet in a solution of lipids in oil acquires a lipid monolayer coat, and two such droplets adhere to form a bilayer at their interface. Networks of droplets have been constructed in this way that function as light sensors, batteries and electrical circuits by using membrane proteins incorporated into the bilayers. However, the droplets have been confined to a bulk oil phase, which precludes direct communication with physiological environments. Further, the networks typically have been assembled manually, which limits their scale and complexity. This thesis addresses these limitations, and thereby enables prospective medical and technological applications for droplet networks. In the first part of the work, defined droplet networks are encapsulated within mm-scale drops of oil in water to form structures called multisomes. The encapsulated droplets adhere to one another and to the surface of the oil drop to form interface bilayers that allow them to communicate with each other and with the surrounding aqueous environment through membrane pores. The contents of the droplets can be released by changing the pH or temperature of the surrounding solution. Multisomes have potential applications in synthetic biology and medicine. In the second part of the work, a three-dimensional printing technique is developed that allows the construction of complex networks of tens of thousands of heterologous droplets ~50 µm in diameter. The droplets form a self-supporting material in bulk oil or water analogous to biological tissue. The mechanical properties of the material are calculated to be similar to those of soft tissues. Membrane proteins can be printed in specific droplets, for example to establish a conductive pathway through an otherwise insulating network. Further, the networks can be programmed by osmolarity gradients to fold into designed shapes. Printed droplet networks can serve as platforms for soft devices, and might be interfaced with living tissues for medical applications.

Les biofilms sont des communautés microbiennes se développant sur des interfaces, en particulier solide-liquide, où les micro-organismes sont enrobés dans une matrice polymérique auto-sécrétée. Le mode de vie sous forme de biofilm est prédominant dans les milieux naturels (par e.g. la texture glissante des fonds de rivières, les dépôts visqueux des canalisations et la plaque dentaire) et confère aux micro-organismes un environnement propice à leur développement. Ceci est particulièrement vrai dans des milieux poreux qui, de part leur important ratio surface/volume, constituent des substrats favorables à la colonisation. Le cadre des biofilms en milieux poreux forme une complexité multi-physique d’ordre élevée dans laquelle interagissent des mécanismes physiques, chimiques et biologiques multi-échelles encore mal compris et très partiellement maîtrisés. La rétroaction entre l’écoulement, la distribution spatiale des microorganismes et le transport de nutriments (par diffusion et advection) en est un exemple. Le développement de biofilms en milieux poreux est au centre de multiples procédés d’ingénierie, tel que les bio-filtres, la bio-remédiation des sols, le stockage de CO2, et de problèmes médicaux comme les infections. Un verrou significatif à l’avancée des connaissances est la limitation des techniques exploratoires en métrologie et imagerie dans des milieux opaques. L’objectif principal de cette thèse est la proposition de méthodologies expérimentales reproductibles et robustes permettant l’étude de biofilms en milieux poreux. Un dispositif expérimental en conditions physiques et biologiques contrôlées est proposé. De plus, un protocole d’imagerie 3D basé sur la micro-tomographie à rayons X (MT RX) associé à l’utilisation d’un nouvel agent de contraste (sulfate de baryum et gel d’agarose), est validé afin de quantifier la distribution spatiale du biofilm. Dans un premier temps, la méthodologie MT RX est comparée à une des méthodes les plus utilisées pour la visualisation de biofilms : la microscopie photonique par fluorescence, ici biphotonique (MBP). Cette comparaison est réalisée pour des biofilms de Pseudomonas Aeruginosa développés dans des capillaires transparents en verre, ce qui facilite l’application des deux modalités. Dans un second temps, une étude des incertitudes liées à l’imagerie est réalisée à travers l’évaluation de différentes métriques (volume, surfaces 3D, épaisseurs) pour un fantôme d’imagerie et trois algorithmes de segmentation différents. Les analyses quantitatives montrent que le protocole de MT RX permet une visualisation du biofilm avec une incertitude d’environ 17%, ce qui est comparable à la MBP (14%). La reproductibilité et la robustesse de la méthodologie MT RX est démontrée. La troisième étape du travail de recherche permet d’aboutir au développement d’un bioréacteur innovant élaboré par fabrication additive et contrôlé par un système micro-fluidique de haute précision. Le dispositif expérimental que nous avons conçu permet de suivre en temps réel l’évolution des propriétés de transport (perméabilité effective), les concentrations en O2 et le détachement de biofilm par spectrophotométrie ; ceci pour des conditions hydrodynamiques contrôlées. Notre méthodologie permet d’étudier l’influence de paramètres biophysiques sur la colonisation du milieu poreux, par exemple l’influence du débit ou de la concentration de nutriments sur le développement temporel du biofilm. En conclusion, ce travail de thèse propose une méthodologie expérimentale reproductible et robuste pour la croissance contrôlée et l’imagerie 3D de biofilms en milieux poreux en apportant la versatilité du contrôle de la micro-architecture du milieu, de l’écoulement et des conditions biochimiques de culture. A notre connaissance, l’approche scientifique suivie et les dispositifs expérimentaux associés constitue la méthodologie la plus complète à ce jour, pour l’étude de biofilms en milieu poreux. / Biofilms are microbial communities developing at the interface between two phases, usually solidliquid, where the micro-organisms are nested in a self-secreted polymer matrix. The biofilm mode of growth is predominant in nature (for e.g. the slimy matter forming on rocks at river bottoms, the viscous deposit in water pipes or even dental plaque) and confers a suitable environment for the development of the micro-organisms. This is particularly the case for porous media which provide favourable substrates given their significant surface to volume ratio. The multi-physical framework of biofilms in porous media is highly complex where the mechanical, chemical and biological aspects interacting at different scales are poorly understood and very partially controlled. An example is the feedback mechanism between flow, spatial distribution of the micro-organisms and the transport of nutrient (by diffusion and advection). Biofilms developing in porous media are a key process of many engineering applications, for example biofilters, soil bio-remediation, CO2 storage and medical issues like infections. Progress in this domain is substantially hindered by the limitations of experimental techniques in metrology and imaging in opaques structures. The main objective of this thesis is to propose robust and reproducible experimental methodologies for the investigation of biofilms in porous media. An experimental workbench under controlled physical and biological conditions is proposed along with a validated 3D imaging protocol based on X-ray micro-tomography (XR MT) using a novel contrast agent (barium sulfate and agarose gel) to quantify the spatial distribution of the biofilm. At first, the XR MT-based methodology is compared to a commonly used techniques for biofilm observation: one or multiple photon excitation fluorescence microscopy, here two-photon laser scanning microscopy (TPLSM). This comparison is performed on Pseudomonas Aeruginosa biofilms grown in transparent glass capillaries which allows for the use of both imaging modalities. Then, the study of uncertainty associated to different metrics namely volume, 3D surface area and thickness, is achieved via an imaging phantom and three different segmentation algorithms. The quantitative analysis show that the protocol enables a visualisation of the biofilm with an uncertainty of approximately 17% which is comparable to TPLSM (14%). The reproducibility and robustness of the XR MT-based methodology is demonstrated. The last step of this work is the achievement of a novel bioreactor elaborated by additive manufacturing and controlled by a high-performance micro-fluidic system. The experimental workbench that we have designed enables to monitor in real-time the evolution of transport properties (effective permeability), O2 concentrations and biofilm detachment by spectrophotometry, all under controlled hydrodynamical conditions. Our methodology allows to investigate the influence of biophysical parameters on the colonisation of the porous medium, for example, the influence of flow rate or nutrient concentration on the temporal development of the biofilm. In conclusion, the thesis work proposes a robust and reproducible experimental methodology for the controlled growth and 3D imaging of biofilms in porous media; while providing versatility in the control of the substrate’s micro-architecture as well as on the flow and biochemical culture conditions. To our knowledge, the scientific approach followed, along with the experimental apparatus, form the most complete methodology, at this time, for the study of biofilms in porous media.

Neuronavigation and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) are valuable tools in clinical and research environment. Neuronavigation provides visual guidance of a given instrument during procedures of neurological interventions, relative to anatomic images. In turn, TMS allows the non-invasive study of cortical brain function and to treat several neurological disorders. Despite the well-accepted importance of both techniques, high-cost of neuronavigation systems and limited spatial accuracy of TMS in targeting brain structures, limit their applications. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to i) develop an open-source, free neuronavigation software, ii) study a possible combination of neuronavigation and 3D printing for surgical planning, and iii) construct a multi-channel TMS coil with electronic control of electric field (E-field) orientation. In the first part, we developed and characterized a neuronavigation software compatible with multiple spatial tracking devices, the InVesalius Navigator. The created co-registration algorithm enabled tracking position and orientation of instruments with an intuitive graphical interface. Measured accuracy was similar to that of commercial systems. In the second part, we created 3D printed models from patients with neurological disorders and assessed the errors of localizing anatomical landmarks during neuronavigation. Localization errors were below 3 mm, considered acceptable for clinical applications. Finally, in the last part, we combined a set of two thin, overlapping coils to allow electronic control of the E-field orientation and investigated how the motor evoked responses depend on the stimulus orientation. The developed coil enabled the stimulation of the motor cortex with high angular resolution. Motor responses showed the highest amplitude and lowest latency with E-field approximately perpendicular to the central sulcus. In summary, this thesis provides new methods to improve spatial accuracy of techniques to brain interventions. / A neuronavegação e a estimulação magnética transcraniana (EMT ou TMS, do termo em inglês transcranial magnetic stimulation) têm sido apresentadas como ferramentas valiosas em aplicações clínicas e de pesquisa. A neuronavegação possibilita a localização de instrumentos em relação a imagens anatômicas durante procedimentos de intervenção neurológica. Por sua vez, a EMT permite o estudo não invasivo da função cerebral e o tratamento de doenças neurológicas. Apesar da importância de ambas as técnicas, o alto custo dos sistemas de neuronavegação e a reduzida precisão espacial da EMT em ativar estruturas cerebrais limitam suas aplicações. Sendo assim, o objetivo desta tese foi: i) desenvolver um software de neuronavegação gratuito e de código aberto, ii) estudar a combinação entre neuronavegação e impressão 3D para planejamento cirúrgico, e iii) construir uma bobina de EMT multicanal com controle eletrônico da orientação do campo elétrico (CE). Na primeira parte, desenvolvemos e caracterizamos um software de neuronavegação compatível com vários rastreadores espaciais, o InVesalius Navigator. O algoritmo criado possibilitou o rastreamento de instrumentos por uma interface gráfica intuitiva. A precisão medida foi semelhante à de sistemas comerciais. Na segunda parte, imprimimos modelos 3D de pacientes com patologias neurológicas e avaliamos os erros de localização de marcos anatômicos durante a neuronavegação. Os erros de localização foram inferiores a 3 mm, considerados aceitáveis para aplicações clínicas. Por fim, na última parte, combinamos duas bobinas sobrepostas para controlar eletronicamente a orientação do CE, e investigamos como as respostas motoras evocadas dependem da orientação da corrente. A bobina desenvolvida possibilitou estimular o córtex motor com alta resolução angular. As respostas motoras apresentaram maior amplitude e menor latência para orientação do CE aproximadamente perpendicular ao sulco central. Em suma, esta tese fornece novos métodos para melhorar a precisão espacial de técnicas de intervenção com o cérebro.

L’objet principal de cette thèse est de proposer des méthodes pour la synthèse de formes qui soient contrôlables et permettent d’imprimer les résultats obtenus. Les imprimantes 3D étant désormais plus faciles d’accès que jamais, les logiciels de modélisation doivent maintenant prendre en compte les contraintes de fabrication imposées par les technologies de fabrication additives. En conséquence, des algorithmes efficaces doivent être développés afin de modéliser les formes complexes qui peuvent être créées par impression 3D. Nous développons des algorithmes pour la synthèse de formes par l’exemple qui prennent en compte le comportement mécanique des structures devant être fabriquées. Toutes les contributions de cette thèse s’intéressent au problème de génération de formes complexes sous contraintes géométriques et objectifs structurels. Dans un premier temps, nous nous intéressons à la gestion des contraintes de fabrication, et proposons une méthode pour synthétiser des structures de support efficaces qui sont bien adaptées aux imprimantes à filament. Dans un deuxième temps, nous prenons en compte le contrôle de l’apparence, et développons de nouvelles méthodes pour la synthèse par l’exemple qui mélangent astucieusement des critères sur visuels, et des contraintes sur le comportement mécanique des objets. Pour finir, nous présentons une méthode passant bien à l’échelle, afin de contrôler les propriétés élastiques des structures imprimées. Nous nous inspirons des méthodes de synthèse de texture procédurales, et proposons un algorithme efficace pour synthétiser des microstructures imprimables et contrôler leurs propriétés élastiques / The main goal of this thesis is to propose methods to synthesize shapes in a controllable manner, with the purpose of being fabricated. As 3D printers grow more accessible than ever, modeling software must now take into account fabrication constraints posed by additive manufacturing technologies. Consequently, efficient algorithms need to be devised to model the complex shapes that can be created through 3D printing. We develop algorithms for by-example shape synthesis that consider the physical behavior of the structure to fabricate. All the contributions of this thesis focus on the problem of generating complex shapes that follow geometric constraints and structural objectives. In a first time, we focus on dealing with fabrication constraints, and propose a method for synthesizing efficient support structures that are well-suited for filament printers. In a second time, we take into account appearance control, and develop new by-example synthesis methods that mixes in a meaningful manner criteria on the appearance of the synthesized shapes, and constraints on their mechanical behavior. Finally, we present a highly scalable method to control the elastic properties of printed structures. We draw inspiration from procedural texture synthesis methods, and propose an efficient algorithm to synthesize printable microstructures with controlled elastic properties

One of the greatest obstacles to clinical translation of bone tissue engineering is the inability to effectively and efficiently vascularise scaffolds. This limits the size of defects that can be repaired, as blood perfusion is necessary to provide nutrient and waste exchange to tissue at the core of scaffolds. The goal of this work was to systematically explore whether architecture, at a scale of hundreds of microns, can be used to direct the growth of microvessels into the core of scaffolds. A pipeline was developed for the production of hydroxyapatite surfaces with controlled architecture. Three batches of hydroxyapatite were used with two different particle morphologies and size distributions. On sintering, one batch remained phase pure and the other two batches were biphasic mixtures of α-tricalcium phosphate (α-TCP) and hydroxyapatite. Sample production methods based on slip casting of a hydroxyapatite-gelatin slurry were explored. The most successful of these involved the use of curable silicone to produce moulds of high-resolution, three dimensional (3D) printed parts with the desired design. Parts were dried and sintered to produce patterned surfaces with higher resolution than obtainable through conventional 3D printing techniques. Given the difficulties associated with the structural reproducibility of concave pores architectures in 3D reported in the literature, in this work, a 2.5D model has been developed that varies architectural parameters in a controlled manner. Six contrasting architectures consisting of semi-circular ridges and grooves were produced. Grooves and ridges were designed to have widths of 330 μm and 660 μm, with periodicities, respectively, of 1240 μm and 630 μm. Groove depth was varied between 150 μm and 585 μm. Co-cultures of endothelial cells and osteoblasts were optimised and used to grow microcapillary-like structures (referred to as "microvessels") on substrates. Literature shows that these precursors to microcapillaries contain lumina and can produce functional vasculature, demonstrating their clinical promise. The effects of the composition and surface texture of grooved samples on microvessel formation were studied. It was found that surface microtopography and phase purity (α-TCP content) did not affect microvessel formation. However, hydroxyapatite architecture was found to significantly affect microvessel location and orientation. Microvessels were found to form predominantly in grooves or between convexities. Two metrics - the degree of alignment (DOA) and the degree of containment (DOC) - were developed to measure the alignment of endothelial cell structures and their localisation in grooves. For all patterned samples, the CD31 (an endothelial cell marker) signal was at least 2.5 times higher along grooves versus perpendicular to grooves. In addition, the average signal was at least two times higher within grooves than outside grooves for all samples. Small deep grooves had the highest DOA and DOC (6.13 and 4.05 respectively), and individual, highly aligned microvessels were formed. An image analysis method that compares sample X-ray microtomography sections to original designs to quantify architectural distortion was developed. This method will serve as a useful tool for improvements to architectural control for future studies. This body of work shows the crucial influence of architecture on microvessel self-assembly at the hundreds of micron scale. It also highlights that microvessel formation has a relatively low sensitivity to phase composition and microtopography. These findings have important implications for the design of porous scaffolds and the refinement of fabrication technologies. While important results were shown for six preliminary architectures, this work represents a toolkit that can be applied to screen any 2.5D architecture for its angiogenic potential. This work has laid the foundations that will allow elucidating the precise correspondence between architecture and microvessel organisation, ultimately enabling the "engineering" of microvasculature by tuning local scaffold design to achieve desirable microvessel properties.

This thesis proposes an algorithm that determine the geometry of 3D-printed, custom-designed spring element bands made of thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) for use in a wearable orthotic device to aid in the physical therapy of a human hand exhibiting spasticity after stroke. Each finger of the hand is modeled as a mechanical system consisting of a triple-rod pendulum with nonlinear stiffness at each joint and forces applied at the attachment point of each flexor muscle. The system is assumed quasi-static, which leads to a torque balance between the flexor tendons in the hand, joint stiffness and the design force applied to the fingertip by the 3D-printed spring element. To better understand material properties of the spring element’s material, several tests are performed on TPE specimens printed with different infill geometries, including tensile tests and cyclic loading tests. The data and stress-strain curves for each geometry type are presented, which yield a nonlinear relationship between stress and strain as well as apparent hysteresis. Polynomial curves are used to fit the data, which allows for the band geometry to be designed. A hypothetical hand is presented along with how input measurements might be taken for the algorithm. The inputs are entered into the algorithm, and the geometry of the bands for each finger are generated. Results are discussed, and future work is noted, providing a means for the design of a customized orthotic device.

Modern 3D printing technology is becoming a more viable option for use in industrial manufacturing. As the speed and precision of rapid prototyping technology improves, so too must the 3D scanning and verification technology. Current 3D scanning technology (such as CT Scanners) produce the resolution needed for micron precision inspection. However, the method lacks in speed. Some scans can be multiple gigabytes in size taking several minutes to acquire and process. Especially in high volume manufacturing of 3D printed parts, such delays prohibit the widespread adaptation of 3D scanning technology for quality control. The limiting factors of current technology boil down to computational and processing power along with available sensor resolution and operational frequency. Realizing a 3D scanning system that produces micron precision results within a single minute promises to revolutionize the quality control industry. The specific 3D scanning method considered in this thesis utilizes a line profile triangulation sensor with high operational frequency, and a high-precision mechanical actuation apparatus for controlling the scan. By syncing the operational frequency of the sensor to the actuation velocity of the apparatus, a 3D point cloud is rapidly acquired. Processing of the data is then performed using MATLAB on contemporary computing hardware, which includes proper point cloud formatting and implementation of the Iterative Closest Point (ICP) algorithm for point cloud stitching. Theoretical and physical experiments are performed to demonstrate the validity of the method. The prototyped system is shown to produce multiple loosely-registered micron precision point clouds of a 3D printed object that are then stitched together to form a full point cloud representative of the original part. This prototype produces micron precision results in approximately 130 seconds, but the experiments illuminate upon the additional investments by which this time could be further reduced to approach the revolutionizing one-minute milestone.

Cette thèse porte sur l'évaluation de la réponse cellulaire in vitro vis-à-vis de différentes stratégies de modification de surface pour améliorer la capacité d’ostéointégration de céramiques bioinertes pour implants orthopédiques et dentaires. Premièrement des surfaces l'alumine-zircone avec différentes micro-rugosités obtenues par moulage par injection ont été étudiées. Le comportement d'ostéoblastes primaires humains (obtenus à partir de têtes de fémurs soumis à arthroplastie) a été étudié sur les surfaces telles quelles ou modifiées par traitement avec acide hydrofluorique. La micro-rugosité a eu seulement un effet mineur sur la réponse ostéoblastique tandis que la combinaison de micro- et nano-rugosité a eu un effet synergique sur la maturation ostéoblastique. Cette stratégie de modification de surface ouvre la voie vers des cupules acétabulaires céramiques monoblocs directement ostéo-intégrées. Deuxièmement, le robocasting (une technique d’impression 3D) a été exploré pour la production de structures macroporeuses en alumine-zircone avec une haute reproductibilité et contrôle architectural. Les structures imprimées ont présentées une topographie aux multiples niveaux grâce au design et les conditions de frittage. Les ostéoblastes ont pu s'attacher sur les structures 3D mais la préservation des cellules à l’intérieur des scaffolds sur le long terme reste à améliorer. Des techniques de sélection rapide de modifications de surface ont fait l'objet de la dernière partie de cette thèse. Deux différentes stratégies ont été utilisées sur la zircone: laser femtoseconde pour la production de multiples motifs sur un échantillon unique et échantillons avec un gradient de rugosité via le contrôle du temps d’attaque chimique. La morphologie des cellules souches humaines a permis d'avoir un indicateur précoce de la lignée de différentiation cellulaire. En conclusion, les différentes techniques de modification de surface de zircone et alumine-zircone utilisées à travers la thèse peuvent moduler l’interaction cellule-matériau en stimulant la différentiation ostéoblastique de cellules souches et la maturation des ostéoblastes. / The focus of this PhD thesis is the in vitro evaluation of cell-material interactions on bioinert ceramics with novel surface modifications for enhanced osseointegration of orthopaedic and dental implants. Firstly, alumina-zirconia surfaces with different micro-roughnesses obtained by injection moulding were studied. The behaviour of human primary osteoblasts (hObs) obtained from patients undergoing total hip replacements was studied on the different micro-rough ZTA surfaces and on combined micro-/nano-rough surfaces modified by hydrofluoric acid treatment. Micro-roughness alone had minor effects on hOb response while the combination micro-/nano-roughness induced a synergic effect on hOb maturation. This latter surface modification technique opens the way to the fabrication of ceramic acetabular cups with direct implantation capabilities. Secondly, robocasting (a 3D printing technique) was explored for the fabrication of a alumina-zirconia macroporous structures with high reproducibility and control of the architecture. Roughness at different scales was observed for the 3D structures due to the scaffold design and to the low temperature sintering conditions. Osteoblasts were able to attach on the 3D structures but cell retention at long term needs further optimization. Rapid screening of cell-material interactions was the subject of the last part of the thesis. Two different strategies were tested on zirconia: femtosecond laser to produce multiple patterns on a single sample and samples with a roughness gradient by the control of chemical etching time. Stem cell morphology was used as an early marker of cell differentiation lineage. In conclusion, the different surface modification techniques of zirconia and alumina-zirconia surfaces used in the thesis allow the modulation of cell-material interactions by stimulating stem cells osteogenesis and osteoblast maturation.