Grâce à ses propriétés, la barrière hémato-encéphalique (BHE) est un élément clé dans la régulation de l’homéostasie cérébrale. Des altérations de la BHE peuvent promouvoir le développement de maladie neurodégénérative telle que la maladie d’Alzheimer (MA). La MA est la forme de démence la plus répandue chez les personnes âgées et est associée à des facteurs de risque tels que le gène ABCA7. Certains variants de ce gène ainsi qu’une perte de fonction de la protéine sont associés à une accumulation cérébrale excessive de peptides β-amyloïdes (Aβ) ainsi qu’à des perturbations de l’homéostasie du cholesterol. Ce transporteur est exprimé au niveau de la BHE mais ses fonctions y sont peu connues. Nous nous sommes donc intéressés au rôle du transporteur ABCA7 au niveau de la BHE. Pour cela, nous avons mis au point un modèle in vitro murin de BHE dans lequel le gène Abca7 est sous-exprimé, en utilisant la technique d’interférence par l’ARN. Nos résultats montrent que la sous expression du gène Abca7 est associée à une régulation négative de plusieurs effecteurs impliqués dans la formation des lipoprotéines. L’efflux du cholestérol et le transport de peptides Aβ sont modifiés dans les cellules sous exprimant Abca7. Le knockdown du gène Abca7 entraine également des modifications d’expression transcriptionnelle de certaines enzymes impliquées dans les métabolismes du cholestérol et des peptides Aβ. Ainsi, ces travaux mettent en évidence un rôle du transporteur ABCA7 dans la MA via son implication dans l’homéostasie cellulaire du cholestérol et le métabolisme des peptides Aβ au niveau de la BHE et suggèrent que ce transporteur pourrait être une cible thérapeutique pour la MA. / Due to these properties, Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) regulates exchanges of molecules between blood and brain and thus plays a key role in the regulation of cerebral homeostasis. Vascular dysfunctions as altered BBB can promote the development of neurodegenerative disease as Alzheimer's disease (AD). This disease is the most common form of dementia in the elderly, characterized by two mains pathological hallmarks in brain, the senile plaques and the neurofibrillary tangles. AD is associated with different environmental and genetic risk factors, as ABCA7 gene. It has been reported that variants in this gene are closely linked to excessive accumulation of amyloid- (Aβ) and disturbed cholesterol homeostasis. This transporter is expressed at brain level in endothelial cells constituting the BBB but its function at this barrier has not previously been studied. We thus investigated the role of ABCA7 at the BBB level. For this purpose, we have developed a murine in vitro BBB model in which AbcA7 gene is down regulated, using small RNA interference technique. Our results show that the decrease of AbcA7 gene expression is associated with a down regulation of several apolipoproteins and transporters involved in lipoprotein formation. Cellular cholesterol efflux and transport of Aβ peptides are modified in BBB silenced cells. The knockdown of AbcA7 also modified the transcriptional expression of enzyme involved in cholesterol and Aβ metabolisms. So, these works defined a role for ABCA7 in AD through its involvement in cellular cholesterol homeostasis and Aβ metabolism at the BBB level, suggesting that this transporter could be a potential therapeutic target.

La maladie d’Alzheimer (MA) se caractérise par une perte mnésique progressive. La quantité de cholestérol est plus élevée dans les cerveaux de patients atteints de la MA. De plus, l’existence d’un site de liaison entre le cholestérol (SLC) et l’Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) a été démontrée par résonance magnétique nucléaire. Les mutations effectuées dans le SLC de l’APP abolissent totalement l’interaction entre les peptides et des liposomes chargés en cholestérol. Tous les mutants du SLC produisent beaucoup moins d’Aβ40 et Aβ42 sans modifier les produits de clivage de l’APP. Nous avons mis en évidence deux catégories de mutations : les mutations juxtamembranaires qui augmentent la sécrétion de fragments courts d’Aβ et les mutations transmembranaires, incluant la mutation familiale italienne, qui diminuent la sécrétion de peptides courts d’Aβ. Ces résultats suggèrent un décalage du clivage des mutants par la γ-sécrétase et/ou une modification de sa processivité conduisant à la formation de peptides de courtes tailles. Parallèlement, nous avons montré que des cultures primaires de neurones exprimant l’ApoE4 sécrètent en plus grande quantité les peptides amyloïdes Aβ38, 40 et 42 comparé à des neurones exprimant l’ApoE3. Les neurones ApoE4 expriment plus fortement les protéines tau et phospho-tau, mais plus faiblement l’ApoE « full lenght » par rapport aux neurones ApoE3. Le SLC et le génotype ApoE4 contribuent donc à l’augmentation de la sécrétion de peptides amyloïdes. Il serait intéressant de connaître les mécanismes cellulaires impliquant le SLC de l’APP, le cholestérol et son transporteur l’ApoE. / Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by progressive loss of memory. The amount of cholesterol is higher in the brains of patients with AD. In addition, the existence of a cholesterol binding site (CBS) on APP sequence was demonstrated by nuclear magnetic resonance. Mutations in the CBS of APP completely abolish the interaction between peptides and liposomes loaded with cholesterol. All CBS mutants produce much less Aβ40 and Aβ42 when expressed in HEK293T cells without altering the other APP cleavage products. We identified two mutations: juxtamembrane mutations that increase the secretion of short fragments of Aβ and transmembrane mutations, including the Italian family mutation, which decrease the secretion of short Aβ peptides. These results suggest a shift in the cleavage of mutants by γ-secretase and / or a modification of its processivity leading to the formation of short peptides. Thus, the CBS is a key actor in the secretion of amyloid peptides. At the same time, we have shown that primary cultures of ApoE4-expressing neurons secrete amyloid peptides Aβ38, 40 and 42 in greater quantities compared to neurons expressing ApoE3. ApoE4 neurons express more strongly the tau and phospho-tau proteins, but more weakly the ApoE "full lenght" protein compared to the ApoE3 neurons. The CBS and the ApoE4 genotype therefore contribute to the increase of the amyloid peptides secretion. It would be interesting to know the cellular mechanisms involving the CBS of APP, cholesterol and its carrier ApoE.

Heparan sulfate (HS) is a highly sulfated polysaccharide expressed on the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix, interacting with a large number of proteins. HS is implicated in human diseases, including different types of cancer and amyloid diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The aims of this thesis were to gain deeper insights into AD and cancer progression by elucidating the roles of HS in amyloid-β (Aβ) pathology and hypoxia. The toxic Aβ-peptide is a key molecule in AD due to its ability to aggregate and form amyloid plaques in the brains of diseased patients. It has been reported that HS accumulates with Aβ in these amyloid plaques. We have found that HS is differentially accumulated with Aβ species within the amyloid plaques in the brains of AD patients. We also identified that the HS in the plaques originated from glial cells. Further, we investigated the role of HS in Aβ toxicity using cell models that either lack HS or express abnormal HS. The results show that cell surface HS mediates Aβ internalization and cytotoxicity. Upregulation of heparanase, an endo-glucuronidase that specifically cleaves HS chains, in human cancers increases the potential of tumor cells to metastasize. Spalax, an animal model for hypoxic tolerance, expresses high levels of heparanase. Analysis of HS from different Spalax organs revealed a high sulfation degree and an atypical domain structure, likely modulated by high heparanase expression in the organs. Cells cultured under hypoxic conditions showed a similar HS domain structure and had an increase in heparanase mRNA. We propose that hypoxia-induced heparanase expression is relevant for tumor progression, a process often associated with oxygen deficiency. Altogether, the findings in this thesis are important for future development of therapeutics aiming at interfering with HS functions in AD and cancer.

Final publication is available at http://www.cell.com/cell-stem-cell/abstract/S1934-5909(13)00012-X / 京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第19622号 / 医博第4129号 / 新制||医||1015(附属図書館) / 32658 / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 高橋 淳, 教授 伊佐 正, 教授 YOUSSEFIAN Shohab / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

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Depuis quelques années, les oligomères du peptide Aβ sont identifiés comme étant responsables du déclenchement de la pathologie alors que les dépôts amyloïdes sont des conséquences aggravantes de la pathologie. Cependant, les formes oligomériques d’Aβ impliquées dans la pathologie ainsi que l’origine de ces peptides sont toujours débattues. Notre objectif principal était d’identifier des signatures Aβ oligomériques cérébrales et vasculaires et de déterminer si nous pouvions interférer avec ces signatures pour modifier le décours de la pathologie. Nous avons réalisé des analyses biochimiques qualitative des formes d’Aβ dans des échantillons de cerveau et de vaisseaux issus de patients atteints de la MA et de souris transgéniques modèle de la MA. Nous avons montré qu’une même forme Aβ oligomérique (17-18 kDa) est impliquée dans le développement de la pathologie cognitive chez l’homme et chez la souris APP/PS1. Une signature Aβ oligomérique vasculaire spécifique a été observée dans les vaisseaux périphériques et plus particulièrement la veine porte hépatique des souris APP/PS1. De plus, un traitement pharmacologique ciblant l’expression des protéines de transport de l’Aβ a permis de restaurer les profils Aβ oligomériques contrôles dans le cerveau des souris APP/PS1 tout en « chargeant » la veine porte des mêmes souris en Aβ oligomérique. Ces résultats montrent que les signatures Aβ vasculaires et cérébrales sont intimement liées. De plus, nos travaux mettent l’accent sur une possible intervention thérapeutique agissant sur les formes Aβ cérébrales et vasculaires. / Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex disorder of the central nervous system that affects an increasing number of people worldwide due to the overall aging of the human population. Vascular factors and mechanisms have emerged as an area of key importance. Accumulating evidence indicates that pre-fibrillar aggregates, specifically the low-molecular weight oligomers of Aβ peptide, are responsible for the synaptic dysfunction and neuronal loss that occur in AD pathology. But, these oligomeric forms implicated in the pathology are currently under debate. Our primary goal was to identify cerebral and vascular oligomeric signatures. Secondly, we try to interfere with these signatures in order to modify the evolution of AD. We realize qualitative analyses of cerebral and vascular oligomers Aβ by western-blot. Vascular and cerebral tissues were extracted from AD patients and from a transgenicmouse model of AD. We demonstrate that the same oligomer Aβ (17-18 kDa) is implicated in the cognitive impairment for patients and APP/PS1 mouse. A specific vascular signature of oligomer Aβ was detected in peripheral vessels and particularly in portal vein from liver of APP/PS1 mouse. Moreover, pharmacological treatment targeting clearance of soluble Aβ restored the control signature of oligomer Aβ in the brain of APP/PS1 mouse. This configurational change was associated with an increase of oligomer Aβ in portal vein from liver. These results show that cerebral and vascular oligomeric signatures were closely linked. Finally, our work emphasizes potential therapeutic strategies for AD by targeting cerebrals and vasculars oligomers Aβ.

Extracellular accumulation of Aβ in β-amyloid plaques is thought to be associated with the neurodegeneration observed in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients, although a lack of correlation with cognitive decline raised doubts on this hypothesis. In different transgenic mouse models Aβ accumulates inside the cells and mice develop behavioral deficits well before visible extracellular β-amyloid accumulation. Here we show that intracellular Aβ accumulates in flotillin-1 positive endocytic vesicles. We also demonstrate that flotillin-1 is not only associated with intracellular Aβ in transgenic mice but also with extracellular β-amyloid plaques in AD patient brain sections. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

La maladie d'Alzheimer est une maladie neurodégénérative sénile, entrainant une perte progressive et irréversible des fonctions cognitives et comportementales. Les deux principales caractéristiques pathologiques observées chez les patients atteints d'Alzheimer sont la présence d'enchevêtrements neurofibrillaires intracellulaires (majoritairement constitués par la protéine Tau hyperphosphorylée) et l'agrégation extracellulaire de plaques séniles ou amyloïdes (majoritairement constituées du peptide Amyloïde-β (Aβ)).Si l'étiologie complexe de la maladie reste à établir, la participation du stress oxydant (en partie induit par le peptide Aβ) est largement admise. Il a ainsi été proposé que la mort neuronale puisse être due à l'accumulation de dommages oxydatifs au niveau de la molécule d'ADN, qui pourrait en outre être associée à un dysfonctionnement du système de réparation de ce dernier. Dans notre étude, nous avons cherché à préciser les effets spécifiques du peptide Aβ sur les systèmes de réparation de l'ADN d'une lignée de neuroblastome humain (APP751). Cette dernière sécrète le peptide Aβ à des concentrations très physiologiques. Nous avons observé dans ce modèle une augmentation des dommages oxydatifs à l'état basal et plus encore à l'issue d'un stress additionnel, métallique ou oxydant. De manière surprenante le système BER, associé à la réparation des lésions oxydatives, est apparu sous-exprimé en présence d'Aβ, et réduit d'avantage après l'application d'un stress. Ces observations suggèrent une incapacité de la lignée sécrétrice d'Aβ à répondre à une attaque extérieure, ce qui est vraisemblablement susceptible d'engendrer une accumulation de dommages au niveau de la molécule d'ADN. L'autre fait marquant de ce travail, est la surexpression de facteurs généralement associés au NER, en présence d'Aβ couplé à un stress oxydant. Ces facteurs présentent une multifonctionnalité au sein de la cellule et leur stimulation pourrait représenter la mise en place d'un processus apoptotique plutôt que l'initiation de la réparation de l'ADN. Ces travaux nous ont permis d'établir pour la première fois un lien entre la sécrétion du peptide Aβ et la perturbation des systèmes de réparation de l'ADN, phénomènes susceptibles d'entrainer la mort cellulaire observée en excès dans la maladie d'Alzheimer. / Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder which leads to a progressive and irreversible loss of cognitive and behavioral functions. Two major pathological hallmarks are affecting patients with AD: intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (mostly constituted of the hyperphosphorylated Tau protein) and extracellular senile plaques deposits (mostly constituted of the amyloid- β peptide (Aβ)). If the complex etiology of AD remains to be defined, the role played by oxidative stress (partly generated by Aβ) is widely accepted. Thus, it has been proposed that the neuronal death in AD could be due to the accumulation of oxidative DNA damage over life that could be moreover associated to a deficient DNA repair capacity. In this study we focused on the Aβ peptide specific effects on DNA repair systems. We worked on a human neuroblastoma cell line which possesses the ability to secrete the Aβ to a very physiological level. In this model, we observed an increase in oxidative DNA damage, under basal conditions and even more following exposure to a metallic or oxidative stress. Surprinsingly, the oxidative lesions-associated BER system, appeared to be downregulated in the presence of Aβ, and to a greater extent diminished after stress. These observations suggest that the Aβ-secreting cell line is not able to respond to a harmful environment, which is likely to trigger the accumulation of oxidative DNA damage. The other highlight of this work is the over-expression of generally NER-associated proteins, in the presence of Aβ coupled to an oxidative stress. These proteins exhibit a multifunctionnality within cells and their stimulation could reveal the set up of an apoptotic pathway rather than the induction of a DNA repair process. Taken together, these results lead us to establish for the first time a strong link between Aβ secretion and the impairment of DNA repair capacities, which are inclined to cause the neuronal death that is observed in excess in AD.

Small fluorescent probes are important tools when studying protein aggregates involved in different neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease. Luminescent conjugated oligothiophenes have been developed and shown to be excellent ligands when studying morphology among amyloids, due to their conjugated thiophene backbone that provides them with unique photophysical properties. This kind of probes are being developed successively to enhance the specificity of their biological targets. In this project, luminescent conjugated oligothiophenes functionalized with amino acids, so called proteophenes, have been synthesized to investigate their optical properties. Since amino acids are chiral molecules, the possibility of induced chirality to the thiophene backbone was examined, as well as the proteophenes ability to work as amyloidospecific ligands for the study of protein aggregates. The synthesis of four different proteophenes are presented in this report, along with analysis results of their photophysical properties.

<p>Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, neuropathologically characterized by neurofibrillay tangles and deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides. Several mutations in the gene for amyloid precursor protein (APP) cause familial AD and affect APP processing leading to increased levels of Aβ42. However, the Arctic Alzheimer mutation (APP E693G) reduces Aβ levels. Instead, the increased tendency of Arctic Aβ peptides to form Aβ protofibrils is thought to contribute to the pathogenesis. </p><p>In this thesis, the pathogenic mechanisms of the Arctic mutation were further investigated, specifically addressing if and how the mutation affects APP processing. Evidence of a shift towards β-secretase cleavage of Arctic APP was demonstrated. Arctic APP did not appear to be an inferior substrate for α-secretase, but the availability of Arctic APP for α-secretase cleavage was reduced, with diminished levels of cell surface APP in Arctic cells. Interestingly, administration of the fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) stimulated α-secretase cleavage and partly reversed the effects of the Arctic mutation on APP processing.</p><p>In contrast to previous findings, the Arctic mutation generated enhanced total Aβ levels suggesting increased Aβ production. Importantly, this thesis illustrates and explains why measures of both Arctic and wild type Aβ levels are highly dependent upon the Aβ assay used, with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blot generating different results. It was shown that these differences were due to inefficient detection of Aβ oligomers by ELISA leading to an underestimation of total Aβ levels. </p><p>In conclusion, the Arctic APP mutation leads to AD by multiple mechanisms. It facilitates protofibril formation, but it also alters trafficking and processing of APP which leads to increased steady state levels of total Aβ, in particular at intracellular locations. Importantly, these studies highlight mechanisms, other than enhanced production of Aβ peptide monomers, which could be implicated in sporadic AD.</p>