A concentração de Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr e Pb, determinada por TXRF, foi investigada em matrizes de água, sedimento e fígados de peixes, amostrados em rios da região mineradora de carvão de Criciúma - SC/Brasil - afetadas por descargas de drenagem ácida de mina (DAM). A relação destes metais com a toxicidade para o bioindicador Daphnia magna (24 e 48 h) foi avaliada, sendo estabelecida correlação entre [Fe]solúvel e toxicidade à D. magna nas amostras de água. Para os sedimentos, há indícios de correlação dos teores de Fe e toxicidade, e nos fígados suspeita-se de níveis de Zn alterados. Efluentes da mineração, incluindo a DAM, após o tratamento por floculação e/ou decantação e/ou flotação e alcalinização mantiveram toxicidade mesmo com os metais reduzidos para concentrações não tóxicas à D. magna. Creditou-se a toxicidade remanescente a hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos (HPAs, determinada por CG/MS). Foram testados três adsorventes de baixo custo na retenção de metais (Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr e Pb) em soluções ácidas multimetais: casca de arroz (CA), carvão de casca de arroz (CCA) e turfa e carvão ativado comercial (CAC – adsorvente de confronto). As quantidades máximas adsorvidas dos metais (mg) por massa de sorbente (g) - qm, somatório dos metais, foram: CA 75,46 mg g-1; CAC 78,2 mg g-1; turfa 111,3 mg g-1 e CCA 137,49 mg g-1, (Langmuir e Freundlich - não linear). A toxicidade dos metais para D. magna destes eluatos foi reduzida. Foram preparados compósitos a partir de casca de arroz com deposição in situ de TiO2 (CCT – carbon covered with titanium), e testados como catalisador em Processos Oxidativos Avançados (POA). Os catalisadores TiO2 (P25 Degussa) e CCTs (25 e 50% de TiO2) em POA mostraram remoção dos HPAs e da toxicidade (D. magna e Scenedesmus subspicatus) nos efluentes de mineração, adequando os níveis de toxicidade à legislação ambiental vigente (Portaria FATMA 017/02) com resultados superiores do CCT. Assim, a presente tese alega que o uso de adsorventes à base de carvão de casca de arroz é capaz de reter os metais tipicamente presentes em efluentes ácidos (mineração de carvão), e que a toxicidade remanescente nestes efluentes, devida aos HPAs, pode ser reduzida pelo uso de POA, com incremento de eficiência quando o compósito CCT aqui desenvolvido é utilizado. / The concentration of Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr and Pb, determined by TXRF, was investigated in matrixes as water, sediment and fish liver, sampled at mining of coal region rivers from Criciúma - SC/Brazil – targets by acid mine drainage (ADM) discards. The relation of these metals with toxicity to Daphnia magna bioindicator (24 and 48 h) was evaluated, being established a correlation between [Fe]soluble and toxicity to D. magna in water samples. In sediments, correlation between Fe levels and toxicity was observed, and in liver Zn levels were altered. Mining effluents including AMD, after treatment by flocculation and/or decantation and/or flotation and alkalinization remain toxic even when metal concentrations had been reduced to levels which would be non toxic to D. magna. Residual toxicity was accounted to the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, determined by GC/MS). Three low cost adsorbents were tested in metal retention (Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr and Pb) from multielemental acid solution: rice husk (RH), rice husk carbon (RHC), peat and commercial activated carbon (CAC – confront adsorbent). The maximum quantity of adsorbed metals (mg) by sorbent mass (g) - qm, as metals sum, were: CA 75.46 mg g-1; CAC 78.2 mg g-1; peat 111.3 mg g-1 and CCA 137.49 mg g-1, (Langmuir and Freundlich – non linear). The metal toxicity to D. magna of these eluates was reduced. Composites from rice husk with in situ deposition of TiO2 were synthesized (CCT – carbon covered with titanium), and tested as catalyst in advanced oxidative process (AOP). The catalysts TiO2 (P25 Degussa) and CCTs (25 e 50% de TiO2) in AOP showed PAHs and toxicity remotion (D. magna and Scenedesmus subspicatus) on mining effluents, adjusting toxicity levels to environmental legislation in force (FATMA 017/02), with best results to CCT. Then, the present thesis argues that rice husk carbon adsorbents is capable of retaining the metals typically presents in acid effluents (coal mining), and that remain toxicity in these effluents, from PAHs, can be reduced by AOP use, with efficient increasing when the composite here developed (CCT) is employed.

A concentração de Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr e Pb, determinada por TXRF, foi investigada em matrizes de água, sedimento e fígados de peixes, amostrados em rios da região mineradora de carvão de Criciúma - SC/Brasil - afetadas por descargas de drenagem ácida de mina (DAM). A relação destes metais com a toxicidade para o bioindicador Daphnia magna (24 e 48 h) foi avaliada, sendo estabelecida correlação entre [Fe]solúvel e toxicidade à D. magna nas amostras de água. Para os sedimentos, há indícios de correlação dos teores de Fe e toxicidade, e nos fígados suspeita-se de níveis de Zn alterados. Efluentes da mineração, incluindo a DAM, após o tratamento por floculação e/ou decantação e/ou flotação e alcalinização mantiveram toxicidade mesmo com os metais reduzidos para concentrações não tóxicas à D. magna. Creditou-se a toxicidade remanescente a hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos (HPAs, determinada por CG/MS). Foram testados três adsorventes de baixo custo na retenção de metais (Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr e Pb) em soluções ácidas multimetais: casca de arroz (CA), carvão de casca de arroz (CCA) e turfa e carvão ativado comercial (CAC – adsorvente de confronto). As quantidades máximas adsorvidas dos metais (mg) por massa de sorbente (g) - qm, somatório dos metais, foram: CA 75,46 mg g-1; CAC 78,2 mg g-1; turfa 111,3 mg g-1 e CCA 137,49 mg g-1, (Langmuir e Freundlich - não linear). A toxicidade dos metais para D. magna destes eluatos foi reduzida. Foram preparados compósitos a partir de casca de arroz com deposição in situ de TiO2 (CCT – carbon covered with titanium), e testados como catalisador em Processos Oxidativos Avançados (POA). Os catalisadores TiO2 (P25 Degussa) e CCTs (25 e 50% de TiO2) em POA mostraram remoção dos HPAs e da toxicidade (D. magna e Scenedesmus subspicatus) nos efluentes de mineração, adequando os níveis de toxicidade à legislação ambiental vigente (Portaria FATMA 017/02) com resultados superiores do CCT. Assim, a presente tese alega que o uso de adsorventes à base de carvão de casca de arroz é capaz de reter os metais tipicamente presentes em efluentes ácidos (mineração de carvão), e que a toxicidade remanescente nestes efluentes, devida aos HPAs, pode ser reduzida pelo uso de POA, com incremento de eficiência quando o compósito CCT aqui desenvolvido é utilizado. / The concentration of Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr and Pb, determined by TXRF, was investigated in matrixes as water, sediment and fish liver, sampled at mining of coal region rivers from Criciúma - SC/Brazil – targets by acid mine drainage (ADM) discards. The relation of these metals with toxicity to Daphnia magna bioindicator (24 and 48 h) was evaluated, being established a correlation between [Fe]soluble and toxicity to D. magna in water samples. In sediments, correlation between Fe levels and toxicity was observed, and in liver Zn levels were altered. Mining effluents including AMD, after treatment by flocculation and/or decantation and/or flotation and alkalinization remain toxic even when metal concentrations had been reduced to levels which would be non toxic to D. magna. Residual toxicity was accounted to the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, determined by GC/MS). Three low cost adsorbents were tested in metal retention (Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr and Pb) from multielemental acid solution: rice husk (RH), rice husk carbon (RHC), peat and commercial activated carbon (CAC – confront adsorbent). The maximum quantity of adsorbed metals (mg) by sorbent mass (g) - qm, as metals sum, were: CA 75.46 mg g-1; CAC 78.2 mg g-1; peat 111.3 mg g-1 and CCA 137.49 mg g-1, (Langmuir and Freundlich – non linear). The metal toxicity to D. magna of these eluates was reduced. Composites from rice husk with in situ deposition of TiO2 were synthesized (CCT – carbon covered with titanium), and tested as catalyst in advanced oxidative process (AOP). The catalysts TiO2 (P25 Degussa) and CCTs (25 e 50% de TiO2) in AOP showed PAHs and toxicity remotion (D. magna and Scenedesmus subspicatus) on mining effluents, adjusting toxicity levels to environmental legislation in force (FATMA 017/02), with best results to CCT. Then, the present thesis argues that rice husk carbon adsorbents is capable of retaining the metals typically presents in acid effluents (coal mining), and that remain toxicity in these effluents, from PAHs, can be reduced by AOP use, with efficient increasing when the composite here developed (CCT) is employed.

A Casa da Moeda do Brasil (CMB) é uma empresa nacional, com mais de 300 anos de experiência na produção de valores e impressos de segurança. A produção de cédulas, realizada pelo Departamento de Cédulas (DECED), consiste de três etapas de impressão, off-set, calografia e tipografia, seguida de acabamento e embalagem semi-automatizado. A impressão calcográfica consome solução de limpeza, composta de soda cáustica e óleo sulfonado, para limpeza do cilindro de impressão, gerando um efluente líquido saturado de tinta. Este efluente apresenta baixa biodegradabilidade, apresentando uma relação DBO / DQO de aproximadamente 1:4. Em termos de tratabilidade, as estações de tratamento de efluentes (ETE) apresentam uma configuração convencional, por via biológica, demonstram pouca eficiência na degradação da matéria orgânica deste efluente. Com compostos recalcitrantes, torna-se necessária a inclusão de uma etapa terciária que permita sua degradação por via química, permitindo o descarte do efluente com características menos danosas ao ambiente. Neste trabalho, aplicou-se a reação de Fenton no efluente do DECED por sua capacidade de converter a matéria orgânica em gás carbônico e água ou, caso seja utilizado em pré-tratamentos, torna-os biodegradáveis. Foram estudadas diferentes condições para medir a influência de diferentes parâmetros na eficiência da reação. A reação de Fenton consiste na geração de radicais hidroxil (HO), por diferentes rotas, em quantidades suficientes para a degradação de matéria orgânica. Esses radicais são gerados a partir de peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2) em reações com diferentes precursores como ozônio (O3), luz UV (ultravioleta), ultra-som e sais de ferro. No presente trabalho restringiu-se às reações com sais de ferro. Dentre os resultados obtidos, verificou-se o tempo mínimo para reação em 10 minutos. A relação entre íons ferro e peróxido de hidrogênio é menor do que a literatura normalmente sugere, 1:2, contra 1:3. Como a solução de sulfato ferroso é muito instável, passando os íons ferrosos a férricos, utilizou-se a adição direta do sal. Em escala industrial, a solução de sulfato ferroso deve ser preparada em poucas quantidades para que tenha baixo tempo de estocagem, a fim de não ser degradada. A temperatura, na faixa estudada (de 20C à 45C), é um parâmetro que tem pouca influência, pois a redução da eficiência da reação foi pequena (de 99,0% para 94,9%). O ferro utilizado na reação não se demonstrou uma nova fonte de transtornos para o ambiente. Nas condições utilizadas, a concentração de ferro residual esteve próxima ao limite permitido pela legislação no efluente tratado, necessitando apenas de alguns ajustes para a correção do problema / The Brazilians Mint (CMB) is a national enterprise, with more than 300 years of experience in the production of values and security printings. The production of banknotes, carried out by the Departamento de Cédulas (DECED), consists of three printing stages: off-set, intaglio and typography, followed by finishing and semiautomated packing. The intaglio impression consumes cleaning solution, composed by caustic soda and sulfonated castor oil, for cleaning of the printing cylinder, producing an ink saturated wastewater. This wastewater presents low biodegradability, showing a BOD / COD ratio of approximately 1:4. In terms of treatability, the effluent treatment stations (ETS) has presented a conventional configuration, for biological means, has showed a low efficiency in the organic matter degradation of this effluent. With recalcitrant compounds, its necessary the inclusion of a tertiary stage that allows its degradation by chemical means, allowing discarding it with less harmful characteristics to the environment. In this work, the Fenton reaction was applied in the DECED industrial wastewater due to its capacity of converting the organic matter into carbonic gas and water or, if it is used in pay-treatment, turn them into biodegradable (AGUIAR et al., 2007). Different conditions have been studied to measure the influence of different parameters in the reaction efficiency. The Fenton reaction consists in the hidroxyl radicals (HO) generation, by different means, in sufficient quantities for the organic matter degradation. These radicals are produced from of peroxide hydrogen (H2O2) in reactions with different precursors like ozone (O3), UV light, ultrasound and iron salts (GOGATE and PANDIT, 2004). Here we restricted ourselves to the reactions with iron salts. Among the obtained results, it has been verified the minimun time for reaction in 10 minutes. The ratio between iron ions and hydrogen peroxide is lower than suggests the literature (1:2), against (1:3). Since the ferrous sulphate solution is very unstable, because the ferrous ions turn into ferric ions, straight addition of the salt was used. In industrial scale, the ferrous sulfate solution must be prepared in little quantities so that it has low time of stock, in order to not be degraded. The temperature, in the studied range, is a parameter that has little influence, since the efficiency reduction of the reaction was low. The iron used in the reaction did not demonstrate itself a new source of damages for the environment. In the used conditions, the iron concentration was near to maximum limit allowed by the legislation in the effluent treatment, just needing some adjustments to sort out the problem

A concentração de Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr e Pb, determinada por TXRF, foi investigada em matrizes de água, sedimento e fígados de peixes, amostrados em rios da região mineradora de carvão de Criciúma - SC/Brasil - afetadas por descargas de drenagem ácida de mina (DAM). A relação destes metais com a toxicidade para o bioindicador Daphnia magna (24 e 48 h) foi avaliada, sendo estabelecida correlação entre [Fe]solúvel e toxicidade à D. magna nas amostras de água. Para os sedimentos, há indícios de correlação dos teores de Fe e toxicidade, e nos fígados suspeita-se de níveis de Zn alterados. Efluentes da mineração, incluindo a DAM, após o tratamento por floculação e/ou decantação e/ou flotação e alcalinização mantiveram toxicidade mesmo com os metais reduzidos para concentrações não tóxicas à D. magna. Creditou-se a toxicidade remanescente a hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos (HPAs, determinada por CG/MS). Foram testados três adsorventes de baixo custo na retenção de metais (Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr e Pb) em soluções ácidas multimetais: casca de arroz (CA), carvão de casca de arroz (CCA) e turfa e carvão ativado comercial (CAC – adsorvente de confronto). As quantidades máximas adsorvidas dos metais (mg) por massa de sorbente (g) - qm, somatório dos metais, foram: CA 75,46 mg g-1; CAC 78,2 mg g-1; turfa 111,3 mg g-1 e CCA 137,49 mg g-1, (Langmuir e Freundlich - não linear). A toxicidade dos metais para D. magna destes eluatos foi reduzida. Foram preparados compósitos a partir de casca de arroz com deposição in situ de TiO2 (CCT – carbon covered with titanium), e testados como catalisador em Processos Oxidativos Avançados (POA). Os catalisadores TiO2 (P25 Degussa) e CCTs (25 e 50% de TiO2) em POA mostraram remoção dos HPAs e da toxicidade (D. magna e Scenedesmus subspicatus) nos efluentes de mineração, adequando os níveis de toxicidade à legislação ambiental vigente (Portaria FATMA 017/02) com resultados superiores do CCT. Assim, a presente tese alega que o uso de adsorventes à base de carvão de casca de arroz é capaz de reter os metais tipicamente presentes em efluentes ácidos (mineração de carvão), e que a toxicidade remanescente nestes efluentes, devida aos HPAs, pode ser reduzida pelo uso de POA, com incremento de eficiência quando o compósito CCT aqui desenvolvido é utilizado. / The concentration of Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr and Pb, determined by TXRF, was investigated in matrixes as water, sediment and fish liver, sampled at mining of coal region rivers from Criciúma - SC/Brazil – targets by acid mine drainage (ADM) discards. The relation of these metals with toxicity to Daphnia magna bioindicator (24 and 48 h) was evaluated, being established a correlation between [Fe]soluble and toxicity to D. magna in water samples. In sediments, correlation between Fe levels and toxicity was observed, and in liver Zn levels were altered. Mining effluents including AMD, after treatment by flocculation and/or decantation and/or flotation and alkalinization remain toxic even when metal concentrations had been reduced to levels which would be non toxic to D. magna. Residual toxicity was accounted to the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs, determined by GC/MS). Three low cost adsorbents were tested in metal retention (Fe, Ni, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cr and Pb) from multielemental acid solution: rice husk (RH), rice husk carbon (RHC), peat and commercial activated carbon (CAC – confront adsorbent). The maximum quantity of adsorbed metals (mg) by sorbent mass (g) - qm, as metals sum, were: CA 75.46 mg g-1; CAC 78.2 mg g-1; peat 111.3 mg g-1 and CCA 137.49 mg g-1, (Langmuir and Freundlich – non linear). The metal toxicity to D. magna of these eluates was reduced. Composites from rice husk with in situ deposition of TiO2 were synthesized (CCT – carbon covered with titanium), and tested as catalyst in advanced oxidative process (AOP). The catalysts TiO2 (P25 Degussa) and CCTs (25 e 50% de TiO2) in AOP showed PAHs and toxicity remotion (D. magna and Scenedesmus subspicatus) on mining effluents, adjusting toxicity levels to environmental legislation in force (FATMA 017/02), with best results to CCT. Then, the present thesis argues that rice husk carbon adsorbents is capable of retaining the metals typically presents in acid effluents (coal mining), and that remain toxicity in these effluents, from PAHs, can be reduced by AOP use, with efficient increasing when the composite here developed (CCT) is employed.

Neste trabalho, foram sintetizados complexos de cobre e ferro, com ligantes imínicos, obtidos a partir de 2-acetilpiridina e 2-(2-aminoetilpiridina) (apyepy), ou 2-acetilpiridina e 2-(aminometil)benzimidazol (apyambi), e com ligantes comerciais (ácido nitrilotriacético ou picolínico), capazes de catalisar a oxidação de poluentes, como benzeno, tolueno, etilbenzeno e xilenos (BTEX). Foi utilizado o tolueno como composto-modelo destes poluentes, que foi degradado com o uso de peróxido de hidrogênio, persulfato de sódio, ácido peracético ou peróxidos de metais alcalinos como agentes oxidantes. Os ligantes imínicos foram obtidos a partir de precursores carbonílicos e amínicos adequados, através de reações de condensação, e os correspondentes complexos metálicos de cobre(II), ferro(II) ou ferro(III) foram isolados utilizando métodos usuais de nosso laboratório. A caracterização dos compostos foi feita através de diversas técnicas analíticas e espectroscópicas: UV/Vis, infravermelho (IV) e de ressonância paramagnética eletrônica (EPR). Posteriormente, foi feita a inserção desses complexos de ferro e de cobre sintetizados em matrizes inorgânicas de niobatos e a verificação de sua reatividade em comparação com as mesmas espécies em solução. Monitorou-se a degradação do tolueno pelo peróxido de hidrogênio por cromatografia gasosa e os resultados obtidos indicaram boa atividade catalítica dos complexos, tanto em solução como inseridos em matrizes de niobato. Em solução, os complexos imínicos foram mais ativos que os de ligantes comerciais. Os compostos de ferro com ambos os ligantes imínicos mostraram-se melhores catalisadores que os correspondentes de cobre e um dos ligantes testados foi o mais eficiente (apyepy) com ambos os metais. A inserção em niobatos, aparentemente, preserva o catalisador e mantém sua atividade por mais tempo, mostrando que a inserção em niobatos beneficia o processo / In this work, iron and copper complexes were synthesized, with imine ligands obtained from 2-acetylpyridine and 2-(2-aminethylpiridine) (apyepy), or 2- acetylpyridine and 2- (aminomethyl)benzimidazole (apyambi) and commercial ligands (nitriletriacetic and picolinic acids) that are able to catalyze the oxidation of pollutant compounds as benzene, , ethylbenzene and xilenes (BTEX). Toluene was used as model compound of those pollutants, and its degradation was verified by using hydrogen peroxide, alkaline peroxide, sodium persulfate, or peracetic acid as oxidant agent. The imine ligands were obtained from adequate carbonyl and amine precursors, in condensation reactions, and the corresponding copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III) complexes were isolated by usual methods developed in our laboratory. Their characterization was carried out by analytical and spectroscopic techniques (UV/Vis, IR and EPR). Those complexes were then inserted in inorganic matrices (niobates) e its reactivity were compared to that of the analogous species in solution. Toluene degradation by hydrogen peroxide was monitored by gas chromatography, and the results showed good catalytic activity of all the complexes, both in solution and inserted into niobate matrices. In solution, the imine complexes were more efficient than the species with commercial ligands. The iron compounds with both imine ligands acted as better catalysts than the corresponding copper species, and for both metals those with the ligand apyepy were the most efficient in both cases. The insertion in niobates apparently preserves the catalyst and maintains its activity for longer, attesting that the insertion ameliorated the process.

Alguns dos chamados processos oxidativos avançados (POA) foram aplicados após um processo biológico anaeróbio no tratamento de efluentes do processo industrial de branqueamento da polpa celulósica, visando a aumentar a biodegradabilidade desses efluentes e remover compostos tóxicos, de modo a permitir que um posterior tratamento biológico possa ser mais eficiente e atender às regulamentações ambientais. Para que esse objetivo fosse alcançado, as seguintes etapas de tratamento foram realizadas: processo biológico realizado em reator anaeróbio horizontal de leito fixo (RAHLF), visando à redução inicial da carga orgânica do efluente, seguido de aplicação de um dos POA: 'O IND.3', 'O IND.3'/'H IND.2'O IND.2', 'O IND.3'/UV, UV, 'H IND.2'O IND.2', 'H IND.2'O IND.2'/UV e 'O IND.3'/'H IND.2'O IND.2'/UV, visando a aumentar a biodegradabilidade dos compostos recalcitrantes encontrados no efluente do primeiro tratamento biológico e diminuir a toxicidade. No tratamento biológico, a biomassa anaeróbia se adaptou facilmente à água residuária. Dessa forma, o reator atingiu a estabilidade e apresentou eficiências de remoção de DQO e AOX adequadas para esta etapa da pesquisa (média de 50%), satisfazendo o objetivo de promover uma redução inicial da matéria orgânica de fácil degradação presente nessa água residuária. Com relação aos POA, foi concluído que todos os processos testados provocaram modificações na biodegradabilidade do efluente do RAHLF. O processo 'O IND.3'/UV, realizado em meio neutro, foi considerado o mais eficiente, provocando um aumento de biodegradabilidade de 160%, após 45 minutos de oxidação com uma concentração de ozônio de 1155 mg/L. Através da análise de AOX, observaram-se também degradações médias dos compostos organoclorados maiores que 95% para todos os processos testados. Os resultados gerais mostram a importância e a vantagem de se utilizar um POA como complemento de um tratamento biológico para efluentes de baixa biodegradabilidade, provocada pela presença de compostos recalcitrantes e tóxicos. / Some advanced oxidation processes (AOP) were applied after an anaerobic process for the treatment of bleaching effluents from a kraft pulp mill, aiming the increase of the effluent biodegradability and the removal of toxic compounds, in a way that a further biological treatment could be more efficient to attain the environmental regulations. A horizontal anaerobic imobilizaded sludge reactor (HAIS) was used as the anaerobic treatment in order to reduce the effluent initial organic load. The AOP used were 'O IND.3', 'O IND.3'/'H IND.2'O IND.2', 'O IND.3'/UV, UV, 'H IND.2'O IND.2', 'H IND.2'O IND.2'/UV and 'O IND.3'/'H IND.2'O IND.2'/UV. These AOP were not applied only to promote a further degradation of the remaining COD from the HAIS reactor, but in order to increase the effluent biodegradability and eliminate AOX or other toxic compounds from this effluent. In this way, the AOP would provide an effluent with characteristics to be easily treated by a further and final biological process. In the biological process, the anaerobic biomass was fast adapted to the wastewater. The HAIS reactor reached the stability and had efficiency in COD and AOX removals of approximately 50%, satisfying the aim of promoting an initial reduction in the easy-to-degrade organic matter presented in the bleaching effluents. All the tested AOP promoted modifications in de HAIS effluent biodegradability. The 'O IND.3'/UV at pH 8 was the more efficient process, achieving an increase of 160% on the biodegradability of the HAIS effluent after 45 minutes of oxidation and an ozone concentration of 1155 mg/L. By the AOX analyses, it was observed average degradations of the organochlorine compounds higher than 95% for all the AOP tested. The general results show the importance and the advantage of using an AOP as a complement of a biological treatment process for the degradation of effluents with low biodegradability, due to the presence of recalcitrant and toxic compounds.

Parmi les procédés avancés d'oxydation (AOPs), les procédés de type Fenton (réactif de Fenton: Fe2+/H2O2) et les procédés d'oxydation par le persulfate, sont décrits comme des procédés très performants. Le procédé Fenton est une voie prometteuse et attractive pour le traitement d'une large variété de composés organiques polluants, difficiles à traiter par les voies classiques de dépollution. Au cours du procédé Fenton, des radicaux hydroxyles, molécules à fort pouvoir oxydant capable de réagir avec pratiquement tous types de composés organiques et inorganiques, sont générés. De même, du fait de la structure similaire entre H2O2 et les ions peroxydisulfate, ces derniers peuvent se décomposer en radicaux sulfates (SO4-•), un autre type d'oxydant hautement réactif pouvant réagir avec les composés organiques. Cependant, les procédés Fenton et d'activation du peroxydisulfate classiques présentent plusieurs inconvénients. En effet, la solution doit être acidifiée avant la réaction, et des procédés complexes de purification / séparation sont nécessaires après réaction. Afin de contourner ces inconvénients, le développement de procédés de traitement hétérogènes est proposé pour le traitement de l'eau. Dans cette optique de développement de procédés économes, les oxydes de fer comme la magnétite sont proposés comme remplaçants des sels solubles de fer. Une utilisation de tels matériaux, à l'état solide, présente des avantages indéniables, dont la séparation aisée de l'espèce active après réaction par sédimentation ou filtration. Dans le cadre de ce travail de doctorat, différents types d'oxydes de fer, hématite ou magnétite, ont été synthétisés en milieu liquide ionique. La morphologie, les propriétés structurales, les rapports de surface FeII/FeIII, les surfaces spécifiques, les tailles de domaine cristallin, etc. ont été évaluées. Deux molécules différentes, la tétracycline (TC) et le phenol, couramment utilisées dans l'industrie chimique, ont été sélectionnées comme polluants modèles afin d'évaluer les performances des matériaux préparés pour leur élimination. Une partie importante du travail de doctorat a donc été l'étude des propriétés des matériaux pour l'élimination de polluants organiques par le procédé Fenton hétérogène. Les résultats montrent clairement que les principaux facteurs affectant les performances du procédé sont reliés aux propriétés de la phase active, du fait du caractère surfacique des réactions. La stabilité des systèmes catalytiques préparés est néanmoins une propriété cruciale également étudiée. Le manuscrit de doctorat met donc l'accent sur la conception de matériaux originaux destinés à une utilisation dans les procédés avancés d'oxydation dans l'eau. / Fenton reaction (Fenton reagent: (Fe2+/H2O2)) and persulfate oxidation process, as advanced oxidation processes, are powerful oxidations used world around. Fenton reaction has been evidenced to be a promising and attractive treatment method for the degradation of a wide variety of hazardous organic pollutants, which are difficult to be treated using traditional soft treatment technologies. During Fenton process, free hydroxyl radicals (HO•), strong oxidant molecules capable of reacting with practically all types of organic and inorganic compounds, are generated. In the meanwhile, due to the similar structure between H2O2 and peroxydisulfate ions, peroxydisulfate ions can be decomposed to sulfate radicals (SO4-•), another kind of highly active oxidant that can react with organic compounds. However, the classical Fenton or peroxydisulfate activation processes present some disadvantages. Indeed, the solution needed acidification before carrying out the reaction and complex separation processes have to be applied after reaction. To overcome these drawbacks, heterogeneous catalytic oxidation processes were introduced for wastewater treatment. In this line, magnetite was evidenced as potential substituent to soluble iron ions, and it offers significant advantages such as an easy separation after reaction since the active material can be easily recovered by sedimentation or filtration for further used. In this PhD work, iron oxides, hematite and magnetite, were synthesized using an ionic liquid mediated process. The morphology, structural properties, FeII/FeIII surface ratios, specific surface areas (SSA), mean particle diameters, site densities, etc. were evaluated. Two different model pollutants (tetracycline (TC) and phenol), which are widely used chemicals all over the world, were selected to evaluate the performance of the prepared active materials. A significant part of the PhD study was then on the study of heterogeneous Fenton-like reaction for phenol and TC degradation. Experiments showed that the main factors affecting the heterogeneous Fenton-like system are related to the heterogeneous active phase properties, due to the surface reaction nature occurring over iron oxide surface. However, stability of this active phase, with progressive dissolution under reaction, is also a real challenge. This PhD manuscript, focusing on the design of highly active materials for advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), is constituted of five experiment result parts.

Le principal objectif de la thèse est l'optimisation d'un procédé d'oxydation avancée par la mise en œuvre des outils de l'automatique moderne.Le procédé considéré concerne l'ozonation catalytique utilisé pour traiter les eaux résiduaires industrielles. L'optimisation de ce procédé consiste à contrôler l'abattement des polluants tout en minimisant le coût de fonctionnement du procédé. La mesure en ligne de la concentration en polluant est fournie par l'absorbance, grandeur corrélée à la DCO. Le procédé est alors considéré comme un système à une entrée, la puissance du générateur d'ozone, et deux sorties, l'ozone dans les évents et l'absorbance.L'identification du procédé a mené à l'estimation d'un modèle linéaire pour construire les lois de commande et d'un modèle non-linéaire, de type modèle de Wiener, pour tester les correcteurs en simulation avant les essais expérimentaux.Les trois commandes testées, la commande par modèle interne, la commande optimale et la commande H∞, permettent de rejeter des perturbations sur la concentration en polluant dans les effluents à traiter. Des analyses de stabilité du système bouclé, vis-à-vis de retards sur la commande, ont été menées.Les résultats expérimentaux obtenus ont permis de conclure sur les gains significatifs apportés par ces développements.La méthodologie développée pour cette application peut être étendue à d'autres procédés afin de faciliter le développement industriel des procédés d'oxydation avancée. / The main goal of the PhD thesis focuses on the optimization of an advanced oxidation process by implementing the modern control tools.The considered process is a lab-scale pilot of industrial wastewater treatment by catalytic ozonation. The optimization of this process is achieved by controlling the pollutant abatement while minimizing the high operating costs. The online measurement of the pollutant concentration is provided by the absorbance which is correlated with COD. Therefore, the process is considered as a system with one input, the ozone generator power, and two outputs, the ozone gas concentration at the top of the reactor and the absorbance.A linear model of the process was identified. It allowed calculating the control laws. And a nonlinear model, with a so-called Wiener model structure, was also identified to test the controllers in simulation before the experiments.The three control methods applied, the internal model control, the optimal control and the H∞ control, allow rejecting disturbance on the pollutant concentration of the effluent to be treated.The stability of closed-loop system with delayed control input was analyzed.The experimental results show the significant benefits provided by this closed-loop system.The methodology developed for this application can be extended to other processes to facilitate the industrial development of advanced oxidation processes.

Algal infestation in water bodies causes the release of soluble organic compounds that impact negatively on the taste and odour of the water. With increasing pollution in water bodies and increasing nutrient loading from agricultural activities, most water reservoirs in South Africa and around the world have become affected by this problem. In this study, an advanced oxidation process (AOP), namely, photocatalysis was evaluated for its potential to degrade aromatic compounds; and taste and odour causing bi-cyclic compounds originating from algae. Semiconductor photocatalysis is an environmentally friendly technology requiring no chemical inputs which is capable of completely mineralising organic pollutants to CO2 and H2O thereby eliminating production of unwanted by-products. Although processes involved in the photo-degradation have been reported for a wide range of pollutants, the degradative pathway in this process has not been fully established. In this study, compounds including phenol, 2-chlorophenol, 4-chlorophenol and nitrophenol were successfully eliminated from simulated wastewater. Degradation of geosmin at an environmentally significant initial concentration of 220 ng/L to levels below the lowest detectable concentration was achieved with an optimum catalyst concentration of 60 mg/L at a rate of 14.78 ng/L/min. Higher catalysts loading above 60 mg/L resulted in a decrease in degradation rates. An increase in initial geosmin concentration resulted in a decrease in rates. Ionic species commonly found in surface waters (HCO3 -, and SO4 2-) significantly reduced the efficiency of geosmin degradation. Degradation of geosmin produced acyclic intermediates from ring fission tentatively identified as 3,5-dimethylhex-1-ene, 2,4-dimethylpentan-3-one, 2-methylethylpropanoate and 2-heptanal. The results obtained indicate that the degradation of organic pollutants in aqueous solution is as a result of synergic action from hydroxyl radicals, positive holes and direct photolysis by UV radiation, though the predominant pathway of degradation is via hydroxyl radicals in solution. Major aromatic intermediates of phenol degradation include catechol, resorcinol and hydroquinone produced in the order catechol > resorcinol > hydroquinone. All three are produced within 2 minutes of photocatalytic reaction of phenol and remain in solution until all phenol is degraded in aerated systems. Production of resorcinol in non-aerated systems is transient, further supporting the hydroxyl radical dominant reaction pathway. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / gm2014 / Chemical Engineering / unrestricted

We discuss the design and analysis of a code generator for C++, implemented in the Umple model-oriented programming technology. Umple adds UML constructs and patterns to various base programming languages such as Java and PhP. Umple code generators create code for those constructs, which can include UML associations and state machines, as well as patterns such as immutable and singleton. Base language methods are passed through unchanged along with the generated code. Creating a C++ code generator for Umple posed many challenges, all of which are discussed in this thesis: We had to focus on the appropriate C++ idioms and stylistic conventions to follow. We followed a test-driven development process to ensure that the resulting code was correct. To evaluate the work, we compared our C++ generator with those in other tools such as ArgoUML and IBM Rational Software Architect. We conclude that our C++ generator is superior in many ways to these widely used tools because it is more complete and generates better quality code.