No abstract available. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1975.

Zimbabwean rural women make significant contribution to agriculture and are the mainstay of the farm labour. Although women do the majority of agricultural work, men, for the most part continue to own the land, control women‟s labour and make agricultural decisions supported by patriarchal social systems. Thus, rural women faced difficulties than men in gaining access to land under Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP). Women‟s relationship with land is therefore through husbands, fathers, brothers or sons. Therefore, this study has undertaken with the objective of assessing the impact of land distribution programme with respect to its contribution to women‟s empowerment in the study area. The Gender and Development approach was employed to assess women access to land under the FTLRP. Such an approach to rural development can help in reducing the gender gap between women and men in order to achieve gender-balanced development. The study used qualitative research methodology where semi-structured interviews gather data from women in Mutasa District. Findings indicate that there are a number of challenges and constraints that are experienced by rural women under the Fast Track Land Reform Programme which include male land registration, no access to credit, inadequate government input support, lack of government laws and policies awareness on women land rights, shortage of farm implements and irrigation water supply and lack of agriculture training. On the other hand, culture and traditional practices still affect women in other cases, disadvantaging them in favour of men, as in inheritance of land and property in the household. It was generally assumed that the programme did not improve women access to land. To improve women access to land, in future, the study recommends that a serious intervention by the state should occur coupled with the revitalization of the programme and a paradigm shift towards an effective food security programme which emphasizes women and their important role in agriculture.

This study explores women’s access to land under the customary tenure system. It examines how the changes in land tenure, access and rights to land as a consequence of HIV/AIDS are affecting agricultural productivity, food security and poverty, with a specific focus on women who have lost their husbands to HIV/AIDS in Zvimba. Zvimba is a village community located in Zvimba District in the Mashonaland West Province of Zimbabwe. The study also discusses policy responses designed to cushion the impact of HIV/AIDS on local communities especially women living with HIV/AIDS. The study highlights the vulnerability of widows to land rights violations, mainly inflicted by relatives but sometimes by the wider community. The main form of abuse encountered included the use of abusive language, threats of evictions and at times, beatings. The legal route for seeking redress was rarely used. Fear of witchcraft, low educational levels and fear of causing conflict between children and their paternal relatives also led widows to abandon the fight for their rights. The study further reveals that widows are heavily exposed to dispossession of their land rights. HIV/AIDS has increased the vulnerability of widows and other women to threats and dispossession of their land and other property rights. Dispossession of arable fields was observed in the four wards. The dispossessions and threats to livelihoods were directly related to the HIV positive status of the widows. The findings from this study illustrate the predominant role that male members of the household or family have over land. Thus, culture and traditional practices still affect women in other cases, disadvantaging them in favour of men, as in inheritance of land and property in the household.

Wetlands are stocks of natural resources limited in supply, in the middle of unlimited human wants with multiple uses to society, presenting an economic problem in as far as their rational and sustainable use is concerned. To that end, conflicting recommendations have been forwarded regarding wetland cultivation as a possible land use across the globe and from within the same regions. On one extreme, wetland cultivation has been linked to degradation of wetlands with pure wetland conservation as the prescribed viable and sustainable land use option to society. Closer to reality, partial wetland conversion to crop land has been found compatible with wetland bio-diversity; implying that partial wetland cultivation is the prescribed wetland use option viable and sustainable to societies, a dictum mainly claimed by rural communities. With that conflicting background and based on the “Safe Minimum Standard” approach, a ban on wetland cultivation was maintained in several early environmental policies in Zimbabwe as a basis for legislative protection of wetlands, a position that is still legally binding in current statutes. Contrary to that, rural communities have responded by invading wetlands as a coping strategy in pursuit of the claimed values of wetland cultivation, further conflicting with standing policies. This scenario has managed to “lock” and is currently locking the claimed 1,28 million hectares of wetlands in Zimbabwe in a “legal-operational impasse”, at a cost to the entire nation since no meaningful investment is possible in wetlands when there is a legal conflict.

Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness / MSc.AEC

PhD (Geography) / Department of Geography and Geo-Information Sciences / Conservation agriculture (CA) which is an agricultural system with the capabilities of conserving soil and water through its zero to minimal tillage, mulching and crop rotation principles has become popular the world over. This study evaluated CA as an adaptation tool to drought in Chivi district, Zimbabwe. It developed a model to enhance adaptation to drought in Chivi and other areas of similar environment. The VLIR-UOUS (2019) Theory of Change (ToC) principles structured interview checklist was used to review the Logical Framework of CA to establish the project design. Questionnaires, key informant interviews and Focus Group Discussions were used to characterise the nature of CA in Chivi and to assess the socio-economic impact of the project. Official records were used to compare food crop production yields per hectare under conventional and conservation agriculture. Atlas.ti 8‘s capabilities such as Co oc for frequency of occurrence, Co-code Doc Table for numeric analysis, Networks and report tools for visual and text analysis were employed in data analysis. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS version 22) was used for its uni-variate and bivariate analysis capabilities. The findings highlighted weaknesses in the Chivi CA principles and project design. It noted a low adoption of the project with some farmers withdrawing from the project against a downward trend in food production, despite CA having higher yields per hectare. The study also noted low socio-economic impact of CA as a project and its potential outside the project framework. The study concludes that CA has can alleviate the drought effects if the project’s framework is adjusted to suit local context / NRF

Thesis (MDF)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research study has examined the impact of contract farming on enhancing efficiencies with the agricultural value chain for smallholder tobacco farmers in Mashonaland Central Province in Zimbabwe. The major challenges facing smallholder farmers in Africa in general and Zimbabwe in particular relate to financial constraints, technical expertise and market access. Contract farming as a transactions-cost-focussed-model is considered more effectively responsive to those challenges than the pure market approach which insufficiently addresses the impact of information asymmetries, bounded rationality, uncertainty, governance challenges and infrastructure challenges, among others. It allows for closely monitored smallholder financing by agribusiness entities which reduces or eliminates the probability of loan default. Contract farming is seen as an important mechanism in transforming the fragmented, subsistence agriculture in rural Africa into high commercialised and viable business undertakings. In this study, extensive reference is made to literature on agriculture financing; empirical research data on smallholder productivity and loan recoverability is drawn and analysed using the quantitative research methodology. The analysis sought to test for relationships among a set of variables and in the process examined the impact of contract farming. A comparative analysis of national data on the contract and auction system of tobacco marketing was done with emphasis on production and sales volumes, crop quality, price stability and market access. The results from the quantitative analysis of farmer-level and country-level data indicated a strong correlation between smallholder farmer production, productivity and loan recoverability and contract farming value chain intervention mechanisms.

This research appraises the impact of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme at three resettled communities in Kadoma District, Zimbabwe. In particular it assesses the livelihood practices of land recipients and their effects on the natural environment. Two of the communities, Lanteglos and CC Molina were resettled under the A1 villagised and self-contained settlement scheme and are found in the Natural Farming Region III. Pamene, the third community, was resettled under the A2 small-scale commercial settlement scheme and is found in the Natural Farming Region IIb. Multiple research methods including household surveys, interviews, observations, reviews of literature and map construction through the use of Geographic Information Systems, allowed for the collection of empirical, descriptive, and spatial data to provide for the appraisal. The land use practices included dry land crop production, livestock rearing, vegetable gardening and exploitation of the natural environment for a variety of purposes. Farming was mostly subsistence with the use of traditional equipment by all three communities. Tenure was perceived to be insecure by beneficiaries and although a variety of papers to show ownership were held, none provided for leasing or freehold tenure. Despite acquiring natural capital from the resettlement process, the findings of this research show low levels of financial, physical and social capital amongst beneficiaries. Moreover climatic variability, the declining macro-economic and unstable political environment and little support from government have adversely affected the livelihoods of beneficiaries. The implication of all this has been a reduction in livelihoods that are based solely on agricultural production, leading to off-farm practices primarily exploiting the natural environment. The long term effect would be increased degradation of the environment, leading to reduced arable and grazing land, and thereby hindering sustainable livelihoods from farming. Recommendations are proposed based on this research’s findings being typical in Zimbabwe. Central to this is the need for government to revise its present land policy and, provide for a comprehensive and holistic land policy that should be based on the vision of how agriculture should evolve in Zimbabwe

Rural farmers in Zimbabwe have been grappling with various changes and challenges occurring in the country since the early 1990s. Amongst these, climate variability has emerged as one significant aspect. It has introduced new challenges for these farmers who are already facing various difficulties in maintaining their insecure livelihoods. Yet, current adaptation theories and inquiries have failed to sufficiently account for and analyse the capacity of these farmers to adequately respond to changing climatic conditions. In this respect, a number of studies have been heavily embedded in deterministic concepts that regard rural farmers as passive victims who play only a minor part in decisions and actions that affect their own livelihoods and well-being. Similarly, although some studies have acknowledged farmers’ capacity to adapt and build elements of resilience, they have not adequately shown how farmers interpret changes in climate and the structures, processes and conditions underpinning adaptation. Following that, my study uses a case study of a rural community in a semi-arid region of Mutoko district in eastern Zimbabwe and Margaret Archer’s sociological theory to understand and analyse how farmers problematise climate variability and respond to it. The study utilises a qualitative approach to divulge the subtleties on how rural people interpret processes of change and adapt to such changes. The thesis found that farmers are encountering increasingly unpredictable and unreliable rainfall patterns as well as shifting temperature conditions which are inducing labyrinthian livelihoods conundrums. However, these climatic shifts are not being experienced in a discrete manner hence farmers are also discontented with the obtaining socio-economic circumstances in the country. Simultaneously, whilst farmers in large part conceived changes in rainfall and temperature to be caused by natural shifts in climate, they also ascribed them to cultural and religious facets. Importantly, the thesis reveals considerable resourcefulness by farmers in the face of nascent changes in climate variability. Farmers have therefore constructed versatile coping and adaptive strategies. What is crucial to mention here is that climatic and non-climatic challenges are negotiated concurrently. Therein, farmers are adapting to climate variability and at the same time navigating difficult socio-economic landscapes. All the same, the process of adaptation is ostensibly not straightforward but complex. As it evolves, farmers find themselves facing numerous constraining structures and processes. Nonetheless, farmers in this study are able to circumvent the constraints presented to them and at the same time activate the corresponding enabling structures, processes and conditions.

PhDRDV / Institute for Rural Development / Throughout the world, irrigation is appreciated because of its immense contribution to agricultural production, food and nutrition security, combating poverty and enhancing development, especially in rural areas. The worsening effects of climate change on rainfall patterns as well as food and nutrition insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa are elevating the importance of irrigation schemes in smallholder farming. However, studies conducted in sub-Saharan Africa indicate that the performance of irrigation schemes remains suboptimal. In addition, the studies are highly skewed towards technical and physical dimensions of the schemes and ignore social aspects such as gender. Consideration of gender imperatives would help define and structure who uses water, when and how. This situation necessitated carrying out the PhD thesis research, aiming to explore and explain inherent gender dynamics in water use and management. The ultimate aim was to propose intervention strategies anchored on differential gender power dynamics embedded in irrigation water use in smallholder irrigation schemes. Specific objectives adopted for the study of the Nyanyadzi irrigation scheme in Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe were to: 1) assess the gendered nature of irrigation water use; 2) determine the gendered nature and extent of participation of male and female members of the irrigation scheme in water management; 3) identify the gendered challenges and constraints to irrigation water use; and 4) propose strategies for improved access and management of water. An exploratory sequentially integrated mixed method research design was used in the two phased PhD studies. Seventy three farmers (26 men and 47 women) were the respondents in the first phase in which qualitative data were collected. The gender analysis matrix and activity profile were used to gather and document the perceptions of men and women farmers relating to use of irrigation water. One hundred and nine conveniently sampled respondents (47 men and 62 women) were the source of data in the second phase of the study, which was quantitative and confirmatory in nature. A questionnaire, requiring responses on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used to collect data. Qualitative data collected during the exploratory phase were analysed using the Cresswell (2013) Thematic Content Analysis technique. Pair-wise ranking was conducted to determine the major constraints to access, use and management of irrigation water. The Predictive Analytics Software Statistics 18 for Windows (PASW Inc: Chicago, IL, USA) was used to analyse quantitative data. Gender, age, marital status, location of irrigation plot, plot ownership and level of education were the independent variables used. Dependent variables included nature of water use, participation in water management and constraints to water use. Cross-tabulation was carried out and the iii Pearson’s Chi-square test for association used to establish if relationships existed between variables. Statistical significance was considered at P < 0.05. The Cramer’s V post-hoc test was performed to measure the strength of association of the perceptions which the Chi-square test had determined to be significantly different. The uses of canal water were found to be varied and gendered. More women than men used canal water for reproductive purposes such as laundry and bathing. Highly significant positive associations (P < 0.01) were observed among gender, age, marital status, ownership of irrigation plot and level of education with use of irrigation water for laundry, bathing, livestock watering and other communal uses. However, location of plot was not associated with different types of water uses (P > 0.05). With respect to farmers’ participation in meetings, contributing in meetings, repair of canals, provision of labour in canal maintenance, hiring labour for canal maintenance and contributing cash for canal repairs and maintenance, highly significant positive associations (P < 0.01) were observed with gender, age, marital status, level of education, and ownership and location of irrigation plot. Level of education of the farmer was observed to be not associated with his/her attendance of meetings (P > 0.05). Plot location was negatively associated with participation, provision of labour for maintenance, contribution of cash and hiring labour for canal repairs (P > 0.05). Exorbitant payments for using water were regarded as the major constraint to performance of the smallholder irrigation scheme. Highly significant positive associations (P < 0.01) were observed between gender and plot location, and all the constraints to water use that the farmers identified. The constraints ranged from unequal water distribution between and within men and women, and upstream and downstream farmers; unfriendly water delivery times; conflicts and corrupt practices in water distribution; and discrimination with respect to schedules of delivering water. Overall, gender imbalance in the use and management of irrigation water existed. This was evident in the disparities in uses and users of canal water that followed gender and social lines. Men dominated decision making in water management, especially in meetings. In contrast, women dominated in implementation stages mainly in relation to provision of labour for cleaning and maintaining water canals. Considering all the results obtained in the current study, it can be concluded that a combination of socio-economic and socio-cultural factors caused the water problems that the Nyanyadzi irrigation scheme experienced. The need for introducing gender-sensitive interventions in use and management of irrigation water was evident. Thus, gender needs, roles and responsibilities should be reconceptualised so as to align them with the socio-cultural context of the Nyanyadzi community. In addition to this, the fact that both men and women iv are not homogeneous interest groups should be factored into irrigation water management. Lastly, it is crucial to incorporate various social hierarchies that interact with gender to influence irrigation water use and management. How this can be done deserves further scientific investigation. / NRF