Although, the potential of management induced changes of soil organic matter, soil hydraulic properties (SHPs) and soil physical quality has been studied particularly in relation to tillage, few studies have evaluated combined effect of tillage, crop residue retention and cropping sequence, which are essential components of conservation agriculture (CA), on stratification and storage of soil organic matter, its effect on near-saturated soil hydraulic properties and soil physical quality in intensive cereal based irrigated cropping systems. Hence, the present study critically analyses the effects of CA on organic matter and hydro-physical properties of soil in a long-term CA field trial in NWIGP, India, which is one of the most fragile agro-ecosystems in the world. The objectives were (I) to investigate the stratification of soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), C/N ratio and evaluate SR as an indicator of storage of SOC and TN and soil quality for different CA practices, (II) to assess the long-term effect of CA practices and short-term effect of crops on near-saturated soil hydraulic conductivity and water transmission properties, and (III) to assess the effect of CA practices on soil physical quality using capacitive and dynamic indicators. There were four treatments: (1) conventionally tilled rice-wheat cropping system (CT-RW), (2) reduced till CA-based rice-wheat-mungbean system (RT-RWMB), (3) no-till CA-based rice-wheat-mungbean system (NT-RWMB), and (4) no-till CA-based maize-wheat-mungbean system (NT-MWMB). To achieve these objectives, soil bulk density, SOC and TN were measured in an increment of 5 cm up to 30 cm soil depth. Furthermore, the effects of CA were also evaluated in terms of soil hydro-physical properties. Soil physical properties such as bulk density and soil aggregate distribution were evaluated in two cropping seasons along with near saturated hydraulic properties. Steady state infiltration rates were obtained at four pressure heads by hood infiltrometer consecutively over two cropping seasons, i.e. during harvest season of rice/maize (October 2017) and maximum crop growth stage of wheat (February 2018). Data were analysed in terms of soil hydraulic conductivity, k(h), flow weighted mean pore radius (r0), hydraulically active porosity (ε) and threshold pore radius (rbp), a new pore measure indicative of macropore stability derived by substituting soil’s bubble pressure in the capillary equation. Finally, the effects of CA on soil physical quality in terms of both capacitive and dynamic indicators, derived from soil moisture retention curve and field measured hydraulic conductivity, respectively, were assessed and related with crop yield to infer which indicator better represented the soil physical quality and its effect on crop yield under irrigated intensive cereal based cropping systems. Results showed that CA had profound impacts on distribution of SOC and TN in the soil profile. Significantly higher proportion of both SOC and TN were observed in the top soil in the CA-based treatments as compared with conventional intensive tillage-based treatment. The mean stratification ratio of both SOC and TN were found > 2 in CA-based treatments whereas the same was < 2 in intensive tillage-based treatment. Storage of SOC and TN in the 0-30 cm were found higher in CA-based treatments as compared with the intensive tillage-based treatment. These results on vertical distribution and storage of SOC and TN indicated a relatively better soil carbon sequestration and soil quality in CA-based treatment. The higher concentrations and storage of soil organic matter in CA-based treatments were, however, not translated into significantly (p < 0.05) lower bulk density due to probable compaction effect of no-tillage and harvest machinery and hydraulic pressure exerted by the flooded irrigation water. However, the increased soil organic matter in the top soil in CA-based treatments improved the soil aggregation significantly which helped in enhancing soil structural quality. Improvement in soil structure was reflected in relatively higher near saturated hydraulic conductivity in CA-based treatments. Irrespective of crop seasons, higher k(h) was observed under CA due to formation of macropores with better continuity, greater size and numbers as compared with conventional intensive tillage treatment. Moreover, higher r0 values were observed for a given k(h) for CA treatments suggesting that interaggregate pores are the dominant pathways of infiltration in CA. A relatively smaller temporal variation of rbp was indicative of a more stable macropore system established by rice-based CA as compared with maize-based CA. CA also enhanced hydraulically active macropores as compared with intensive tillage based conventional agriculture. Results also indicated that crops play an important role in relative distribution of the hydraulically active macropores in the root zone. The impact of CA on soil organic matter stratification and soil hydraulic properties were found to be expressed in terms of changes in soil physical quality. Soil moisture retention curves and pore size distributions under different treatments suggested higher soil water storage in structural pores in CA as compared with intensive tillage-based conventional agriculture. The impact of CA on soil physical quality and consequent effect on crop yield was found to be more expressed through dynamic indicators such as hydraulically active porosity rather than capacitive indicators derived from soil moisture retention curve. Overall, this study reveals that conservation agriculture has great potentials to reverse the intensive tillage induced degradation of soil resources in Indo-Gangetic Plains of India by improving the soil hydro-physical properties and soil physical quality.:Table of Contents Declaration i Declaration of Conformity ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents v List of Figures vii List of Tables xi List of Symbols, Abbreviations and Acronyms xiv Abstract xvii 1 Introduction and Background 1 1.1 General Overview 1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem 5 1.3 Objectives 6 1.4 Research Flow and Chapter Description 7 2 Materials and Methods 9 2.1 Study Area Description 9 2.1.1 Study site 9 2.1.2 Climate 9 2.1.3 Soil 10 2.1.4 Treatments 10 2.1.5 Field Campaigns and Measurement/Analysis 14 2.2 Methods and Theoretical Considerations 14 2.2.1 Soil Sampling and Analysis 14 2.2.1.1 Calculation of Stratification Ratio 15 2.2.1.2 Calculation of SOC and TN Storage 15 2.2.1.3 Aggregate Size Distribution 16 2.2.2 Infiltration Measurements 16 2.2.3 Soil Moisture Retention Experiments 17 2.2.4 Derivation of Hydraulic Properties from Steady State Infiltration Rates 18 2.2.4.1 Near-Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity 18 2.2.4.2 Flow Weighted Mean Pore Radius 20 2.2.4.3 Equivalent Threshold pore Radius 21 2.2.4.4 Hydraulically Active Porosity 21 2.2.5 Determiation of Soil Moisture Charachtristics and Pore Size Distribution 22 2.2.6 Derivation of Soil Physical Quality Indicators 23 2.3 Statistics 25 3 Results and Discussion 26 3.1 Stratification and Storage of Soil Organic Matter 26 3.1.1 Bulk Density 26 3.1.2 Concenrations of SOC 27 3.1.3 Concentrations of TN 28 3.1.4 C/N Ratio 29 3.1.5 Stratification Ratio of SOC, TN and C/N Ratio 30 3.1.6 Storage of SOC and TN 33 3.1.7 Discussion 34 3.1.8 Summary of Results 39 3.2 Soil Hydro-Physical Properties 40 3.2.1 Soil Physical Properties 40 3.2.2 Near-Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity 43 3.2.3 Soil Pore Characteristics-Conductivity Relationship 47 3.2.4 Hydrailically active Porosity 51 3.2.5 Summary of Results 54 3.3 Soil Physical Quality (SPQ) 56 3.3.1 Soil Moisture Retention Curve (SMRC) 56 3.3.2 Soil Pore Size Distribution (SPSD) 58 3.3.3 Capacitive Indicators 59 3.3.4 Dynamic Indicators 60 3.3.5 Relationship between capacitive indicators of SPQ with dynamic indicators of SPQ and long-term crop yield 60 3.3.6 Relationship between dynamic indicator of SPQ (hydraulically active porosity) and Long-term Crop Yield 62 3.3.7 Summary of Results 64 4 Synthesis and Conclusions 65 5 Implications and Outlook 69 References 71

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Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-31T13:24:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 FrancicleitonFC_DISSERT.pdf: 2264503 bytes, checksum: 32bac5ee4fa11da99750236b5690bdc7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-07-26 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The utilization of treated domestic wastewater for irrigation is an alternative to control pollution of surface and groundwater, as well as a way to provide water and nutrients for plants. Thus, the present work was to study the changes in soil characteristics and performance of irrigation (Bubbler) operating system with wastewater from domestic sources. To this end, was mounted an experimental area of 576 m2 in the Miracles settlement in Apodi-RN, endowed with a system for primary treatment of domestic sewage, and four subunits of the irrigation system "Bubbler". The treatments were made up of different proportions of primary domestic sewage (PDS) and water supply (WS) were: T1 (0% of PDS and 100% of WS, more chemical fertilizer [witness]), T2 (33 % of PDS and 67% of WS), T3 (67% of PDS and 33% of WS) and T4 (100% of PDS and 0% of WS). To analyze the performance of the irrigation system, it was used a split plot arrangement having the plots and subplots evaluation times (0, 120 and 240 days of operation). In the analysis of soil physic-chemical characteristics was used split split plot scheme with the treatments on plots, the sampling depths on subplots (0 to 0.20 m and 0.20 to 0.40 m) and the evaluation periods on subsubplots (0, 120 and 240 days after transplanting). The experimental design used was the completely randomized blocks with four treatments and six repetitions. The Data were submitted to analyzes of variance and regression and tests in the average. During the experimental period was determined physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of the PDS and WS, and the results indicated that the quality of PDS and WS do not compromise the use for the agricultural crop, and may be used to management criteria. The highest levels of emitter clogging were found in T4 and T3. The T2 provides better performance of the irrigation system, showing better uniformity coefficient (CUC and CUD) and application efficiency (AE). With respect to soil characteristics, it was observed that the values of EC, P, K, Ca and Al there were no statistically significant changes in treatments, altering with only soil depth and the time of treatment application. The characteristics pH, V, SB and Zn tended to reduce with increasing proportion of PDS and the time of application. The characteristics N, MO, Mg, Na, PST, H + Al, m, t, CTC, Cu, Fe and Mn tended to be greater with increasing proportion of PDS and the time of application. The total coliforms and fecal coliform tended to be greater with increasing proportion of PDS and reduced with increasing soil depth / A utilização de esgoto doméstico tratado na irrigação é uma alternativa para controle da poluição das águas superficiais e subterrâneas, além de uma maneira de disponibilizar água e nutrientes para as plantas. Diante disso, o presente trabalho teve o objetivo de estudar as alterações nas características do solo e no desempenho do sistema de irrigação (Bubbler) operando com água residuária de origem doméstica. Para tal, foi montada uma área experimental de 576 m2 no assentamento Milagres em Apodi-RN, dotada de um sistema para tratamento primário do esgoto doméstico, e quatro subunidades do sistema de irrigação Bubbler . Os tratamentos utilizados foram compostos de diferentes proporções do esgoto doméstico primário (EDP) e de água de abastecimento (AA), sendo: T1(0% de EDP e 100% de esgoto AA, mais adubação química [testemunha]); T2(33% de EDP e 67% de AA); T3(67% de EDP e 33% de AA); e T4(100% de EDP e 0% de AA). Para análise do desempenho do sistema de irrigação, utilizou-se um esquema de parcelas subdivididas tendo nas parcelas os tratamentos e nas subparcelas os tempos de avaliação (0, 120 e 240 dias de operação). Na análise das características físico-químicas do solo foi utilizado o esquema de parcelas subsubdivididas tendo nas parcelas os tratamentos, nas subparcelas as profundidades de amostragem (0 a 0,20 m e 0,20 a 0,40m) e nas subsubparcelas os períodos de avaliação (0, 120 e 240 dias após o transplantio). O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o de blocos inteiramente casualizado com quatro tratamentos e seis repetições. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância e de regressão e testes de média. Durante o período experimental determinou-se as características físico-químicas e microbiológicas do EDP e da AA, e os resultados indicaram que a qualidade do EDP e da AA não comprometem o uso para o cultivo agrícola, podendo ser utilizado com critérios de manejo. Os maiores níveis de entupimento de emissores foram encontrados nos tratamentos T4 e T3. O T2 proporcionou melhor desempenho do sistema de irrigação, apresentando melhores coeficientes de uniformidades (CUD e CUC) e eficiência de aplicação (EA). Com relação às características do solo, observou-se que os valores da CE, P, K, Ca e Al não sofreram alterações estatisticamente significativas dos tratamentos, alterando-se somente com a profundidade do solo e com o tempo de aplicação dos tratamentos. As características pH, V, SB e Zn apresentaram tendência de redução com o aumento da proporção de EDP e com o tempo de aplicação. As características N, MO, Mg, Na, PST, H+Al, m, t, CTC, Cu, Fe e Mn apresentaram tendência de aumento com o aumento da proporção de EDP e com o tempo de aplicação. Os coliformes totais e os coliformes termotolerantes apresentaram tendência de aumento com o aumento da proporção de EDP e redução com o aumento da profundidade do solo

Im Rahmen des Pilotprojektes Mulde wurde die Schwermetallbelastung landwirtschaftlich und gärtnerisch genutzter Böden untersucht. Als Ergebnis der Bodenuntersuchungen und der Boden-Pflanze-Beziehungen wurden Belastungskarten der untersuchten Gebiete angefertigt.

<p>Предмет истраживања докторске дисертације је Западно Поморавље, регија<br />која је издвојена&nbsp; на основу морфолошких и хидролошких критеријума<br />географске регионализације, али и на основу опсежних истраживања на<br />терену. Током израде дошло се до закључка&nbsp; да су природни потенцијали<br />најзначајнији фактор регионалног развоја Западног Поморавља. Ту се у<br />првом реду мисли на плодно пољопривредно земљиште у долини Западне<br />Мораве, значајан хидроенергетски потенцијал и разноврсну геолошку грађу<br />терена, која је условила формирање лежишта минералних сировина. Циљ<br />истраживања јесте да се анализом фактора изврши дефинисање праваца<br />равномерног регионалног развоја, како би се расположиви природни<br />потенцијали рационално искоришћавали. Задатак проучавања је да се истражи утицај природне основе на развој пољопривреде, индустрије, размештај становништва и развој насеља Западног Поморавља. Методолошки поступци примењени у овом истраживању базирани су на примени научних метода географије и њој блиских дисциплина, како би се дошло до комплексног регионалног приступа проучаваном простору.</p><p>&nbsp;&nbsp; Поред природних потенцијала,&nbsp; у дисертацији је детаљно обрађено и становништво, као најважнији фактор регионалног развоја Западног Поморавља. Статистичком обрадом података и истраживањима на терену, дошло се до закључка да су највећи демографски проблеми проучаване регије на почетку друге деценије&nbsp; XXI&nbsp; века, везани за процесе деаграризације и депопулације у сеоским подручјима и&nbsp; индустријелизације и концентрације у градским срединама. Посебан акценат је стављен на &bdquo;трансфер&rdquo;&nbsp; руралног у урбано становништво, где је урбани начин живота и рада већ потиснуо традиционалне вредности сеоског живота и производње. У просторном размештају становништва евидентне су промене пресељавања са обода котлина према речној долини Западне Мораве, у висински појас до 300&nbsp; m&nbsp; н.в.&nbsp; Овде је концентрисано 137 од укупно 230 насеља, у којима је 2011. године живело 88,3% становништва Западног Поморавља. У мрежи насеља је изражена хијерархијска доминација градских насеља, која је видљива на основу дневних миграција становништва. Степен развијености регионалних центара&nbsp; Чачка, Краљева и Крушевца је достигао ниво на коме се мора водити рачуна о правцима будућег развоја, док са друге стране имамо све учесталију појаву биолошког гашења сеоских домаћинстава. Процес старења становништва на простору Западног Поморавља постао је веома изражен и представља негативну демографску појаву која није у функцији регионалног развоја. Он је захватио сва насеља, али са изразитом диференцијацијом градских и сеоских. Просечна старост становништва свих девет општина које улазе у састав Западног Поморавља је већа од просека старости у Србији, која износи 42,2 године. Најстарије становништво има Трстеник (45,1 година), а најмлађе Краљево (42,3 године).</p><p>Као један од разлога опадања броја становника и старења популације Западног Поморавља, наводи се константно&nbsp; исељавање младог радно способног&nbsp; становништва, услед привредне стагнације изазване економском кризом.&nbsp; Шездесетих година&nbsp; XX&nbsp; века Западно Поморавље је била регија препознатљива по економским активностима у области секундарног сектора. где су биле развијене&nbsp; готово све индустријске гране. Чињеница је да&nbsp; је постојање&nbsp; некадашњих&nbsp; великих&nbsp; друштвених предузећа&nbsp; из&nbsp; области металне&nbsp; и&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; прехрамбене&nbsp; индустрије,&nbsp; утицало&nbsp; на иницијативу&nbsp; великог броја малих и средњих предузећа да започну активности у сличним секторима. Приватно предузетништво&nbsp; је&nbsp; основна карактеристика привреде&nbsp; Западног Поморавља у другој деценији&nbsp; XXI&nbsp; века.&nbsp; Значајно је напоменути да радом ових предузећа постепено долази до децентрализације индустрије из градских у приградска насеља и насеља секундарне центре. То и јесте један од праваца равномерног регионалног развоја, јер би размештај индустрије уруралном срединама,&nbsp; временом обезбедио и равномеран размештај активног становништва у непољопривредним делатностима. Истраживања са терена су потврдила да у средишту даље развојне орјентације Западног Поморавља треба да буде подстицај металопрерађивачког и прехрамбеног индустријског комплекса, унапређење услова за развој пољопривреде и туризма, обзиром да на проучаваном простору постоје одлични услови за њихов развој.&nbsp; Западно Поморавље са полупразним сеоским окружењем нема дугорочну перспективу, јер само спрега града са селом и ревитализација руралних простора, омогућује правилан и складан регионални развој.</p> / <p>Predmet istraživanja doktorske disertacije je Zapadno Pomoravlje, regija<br />koja je izdvojena&nbsp; na osnovu morfoloških i hidroloških kriterijuma<br />geografske regionalizacije, ali i na osnovu opsežnih istraživanja na<br />terenu. Tokom izrade došlo se do zaključka&nbsp; da su prirodni potencijali<br />najznačajniji faktor regionalnog razvoja Zapadnog Pomoravlja. Tu se u<br />prvom redu misli na plodno poljoprivredno zemljište u dolini Zapadne<br />Morave, značajan hidroenergetski potencijal i raznovrsnu geološku građu<br />terena, koja je uslovila formiranje ležišta mineralnih sirovina. Cilj<br />istraživanja jeste da se analizom faktora izvrši definisanje pravaca<br />ravnomernog regionalnog razvoja, kako bi se raspoloživi prirodni<br />potencijali racionalno iskorišćavali. Zadatak proučavanja je da se istraži uticaj prirodne osnove na razvoj poljoprivrede, industrije, razmeštaj stanovništva i razvoj naselja Zapadnog Pomoravlja. Metodološki postupci primenjeni u ovom istraživanju bazirani su na primeni naučnih metoda geografije i njoj bliskih disciplina, kako bi se došlo do kompleksnog regionalnog pristupa proučavanom prostoru.</p><p>&nbsp;&nbsp; Pored prirodnih potencijala,&nbsp; u disertaciji je detaljno obrađeno i stanovništvo, kao najvažniji faktor regionalnog razvoja Zapadnog Pomoravlja. Statističkom obradom podataka i istraživanjima na terenu, došlo se do zaključka da su najveći demografski problemi proučavane regije na početku druge decenije&nbsp; XXI&nbsp; veka, vezani za procese deagrarizacije i depopulacije u seoskim područjima i&nbsp; industrijelizacije i koncentracije u gradskim sredinama. Poseban akcenat je stavljen na &bdquo;transfer&rdquo;&nbsp; ruralnog u urbano stanovništvo, gde je urbani način života i rada već potisnuo tradicionalne vrednosti seoskog života i proizvodnje. U prostornom razmeštaju stanovništva evidentne su promene preseljavanja sa oboda kotlina prema rečnoj dolini Zapadne Morave, u visinski pojas do 300&nbsp; m&nbsp; n.v.&nbsp; Ovde je koncentrisano 137 od ukupno 230 naselja, u kojima je 2011. godine živelo 88,3% stanovništva Zapadnog Pomoravlja. U mreži naselja je izražena hijerarhijska dominacija gradskih naselja, koja je vidljiva na osnovu dnevnih migracija stanovništva. Stepen razvijenosti regionalnih centara&nbsp; Čačka, Kraljeva i Kruševca je dostigao nivo na kome se mora voditi računa o pravcima budućeg razvoja, dok sa druge strane imamo sve učestaliju pojavu biološkog gašenja seoskih domaćinstava. Proces starenja stanovništva na prostoru Zapadnog Pomoravlja postao je veoma izražen i predstavlja negativnu demografsku pojavu koja nije u funkciji regionalnog razvoja. On je zahvatio sva naselja, ali sa izrazitom diferencijacijom gradskih i seoskih. Prosečna starost stanovništva svih devet opština koje ulaze u sastav Zapadnog Pomoravlja je veća od proseka starosti u Srbiji, koja iznosi 42,2 godine. Najstarije stanovništvo ima Trstenik (45,1 godina), a najmlađe Kraljevo (42,3 godine).</p><p>Kao jedan od razloga opadanja broja stanovnika i starenja populacije Zapadnog Pomoravlja, navodi se konstantno&nbsp; iseljavanje mladog radno sposobnog&nbsp; stanovništva, usled privredne stagnacije izazvane ekonomskom krizom.&nbsp; Šezdesetih godina&nbsp; XX&nbsp; veka Zapadno Pomoravlje je bila regija prepoznatljiva po ekonomskim aktivnostima u oblasti sekundarnog sektora. gde su bile razvijene&nbsp; gotovo sve industrijske grane. Činjenica je da&nbsp; je postojanje&nbsp; nekadašnjih&nbsp; velikih&nbsp; društvenih preduzeća&nbsp; iz&nbsp; oblasti metalne&nbsp; i&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; prehrambene&nbsp; industrije,&nbsp; uticalo&nbsp; na inicijativu&nbsp; velikog broja malih i srednjih preduzeća da započnu aktivnosti u sličnim sektorima. Privatno preduzetništvo&nbsp; je&nbsp; osnovna karakteristika privrede&nbsp; Zapadnog Pomoravlja u drugoj deceniji&nbsp; XXI&nbsp; veka.&nbsp; Značajno je napomenuti da radom ovih preduzeća postepeno dolazi do decentralizacije industrije iz gradskih u prigradska naselja i naselja sekundarne centre. To i jeste jedan od pravaca ravnomernog regionalnog razvoja, jer bi razmeštaj industrije ururalnom sredinama,&nbsp; vremenom obezbedio i ravnomeran razmeštaj aktivnog stanovništva u nepoljoprivrednim delatnostima. Istraživanja sa terena su potvrdila da u središtu dalje razvojne orjentacije Zapadnog Pomoravlja treba da bude podsticaj metaloprerađivačkog i prehrambenog industrijskog kompleksa, unapređenje uslova za razvoj poljoprivrede i turizma, obzirom da na proučavanom prostoru postoje odlični uslovi za njihov razvoj.&nbsp; Zapadno Pomoravlje sa polupraznim seoskim okruženjem nema dugoročnu perspektivu, jer samo sprega grada sa selom i revitalizacija ruralnih prostora, omogućuje pravilan i skladan regionalni razvoj.</p> / <p>The subject of this doctoral dissertation study is the Zapadno Pomoravlje Region. The region is specific both for its morphological and hydrological criteria of geographic regionalization and for comprehensive field researches. The researches have indicated that its natural potentials appear to be the most important factors of regional development of the Zapadno Pomoravlje Region. It is primarily the fertile agricultural land in the Zapadna Morava Valley, asignificant hydro-energetic potential, a various geological composition of the terrain that conditioned the formation of raw mineral deposits. The objective of this research is to analyse factors and to define directions of the balanced regional development, in order to obtain a rational utilization of the available natural potentials. The aim of this research is to examine a natural basis influence on development of agriculture, industry, migration and development of the Zapadno Pomoravlje settlements. Methodological procedures applied in this dissertation were based on the scientific geographical and related methods,&nbsp; to provide a complex regional approach to the examined area.</p><p>Beside the natural potentials, the dissertation has broadly examined the population, being the most relevant factor of the regional development of the Zapadno&nbsp; Pomoravlje Region. Statistical data processing and field researches have pointed out&nbsp; deagraration and depopulation processes in rural areas, and industrialization and concentration in urban areas to be huge demographical problems in the region in the early second decade of the 21 st century.&nbsp; A population transfer from rural to urban has been especially stressed, as the urban way of life have already overpowered traditional values of rural life and production. In the population spatial disposition, it has been noted that the people&#39;s initial tendency to move from the Zapadna Morava basin to its valley has changed in favour of moving to the upland ranges, up to 300 m above sea level. 137 out of 230 settlements have been located here, making 88.3% of the&nbsp; Zapadno Pomoravlje population in the year of 2011. A hierarchical domination of urban settlements is visible in the settlement network, as noticeable in the daily migrations. The development level of the regional centres of Čačak, Kraljevo and Kru&scaron;evac&nbsp; has come to the point of indispensability of future development strategies. Opposingly, a biological disappearance of rural households is present and frequent. The population ageing process in the Zapadno Pomoravlje Region has become clear, which presents a negative demographic momentum that is not in&nbsp; the function of the regional development. It has spread out across all settlements, strongly differentiating urban from rural. An average population age of the nine Zapadno Pomoravlje municipalities is exceeding the 42.2 years of an average population age&nbsp; in Serbia. The oldest population lives in Trstenik (45.1 years of age) and the youngest in Kraljevo (42.3 years of age).</p><p>Young working age people has constantly been moving out, due to economic stagnation, which results in a declining number and ageing population. In the sixties of the 20 th century the Zapadno Pomoravlje Region used to be well-known for its economic activities in the secondary sector, with most&nbsp; branches of industry developed. In the past, big social metal and food industry companies used&nbsp; to influence an initiative of a number of small-scale and middle-scale companies to start their activities in similar sectors. Private&nbsp; entrepreneurship hasbeen a distinctive feature of the Zapadno Pomoravlje economy in the second decade of the 21 st century. It is essential to point that these companies&#39; operations gradually help decentralization of industry, away from urban and suburban areas and secondary sector settlements. It is one of the directions of the balanced regional development, as the disposition of industry into rural areas would provide a balanced disposition of active population into non-agricultural activities. Field researches have outlined that metallurgical and food processing industry sectors, agitation for development of agriculture and tourism should become&nbsp; the focus of further developmental organization of the Zapadno Pomoravlje Region. The Zapadno Pomoravlje Region with half-empty rural surrounding has no long-term perspective, unless the collaboration between a town and a village and revitalization of rural areas provide a proper and balanced development.</p>

CO2 is a greenhouse gas which is significantly emitted by agricultural soils through the decomposition of plant residue and soil organic carbon. Carbon isotopes can be used in determining the source of the CO2, origin of the carbon, and the age of the CO2 emissions. This study investigates the transport of CO2 gas through agricultural soils using carbon isotopes 14C and 13C to complement concentration and production rate measurements in two comparative agricultural settings in Eastern Ontario, one of which has been modified by clearing and dredging of the adjacent riparian zone and one left undredged. Traditional radiocarbon dating measures time through loss by decay, while recent dating is based on matching measurements with the atmospheric 14CO2 signal (F14C) generated by nuclear bomb testing in the 1950s and 1960s. CO2 emissions were analyzed from soil core sections together with soil-probe gas samples and surface flux chamber samples collected from the study area. Soil cores were collected from 0- 90 cm at 7.5 cm increments and placed into IsoJar® microcosms for a period of one month. CO2 in-growth was monitored to provide production rates and samples for 14C and 13C analysis. The radiocarbon data for the microcosms showed that values increase with depth from the current fraction modern value of 1.00 F14C at the surface to an attenuated peak of 1.04 F14C at a depth of 30 to 40 cm and then decrease to values below 1.00 F14C. The data collected from the soil-probe gas showed a significant depletion in comparison to the microcosms and the surface chambers. The soil cores were subsequently analyzed by a selective leach oxidation protocol to sample decreasingly labile solid organic carbon. This involved placing the weighed soil samples into MilliQ water for 24 hours, before being passed through two sieves, 63 microns and 0.45 microns. The DOC leachate was collected and analyzed for 14C and 13C. The two solid soil fractions were then dried, treated with HCl to remove carbonate and then oxidized under vacuum with 5% H2O2 yielding CO2 and residual soil carbon for 14C and 13C. The radiocarbon analysis of these variously labile fractions, together with the microcosm and soil probe measurements, demonstrate that surface emissions at both sites are greatly dominated by CO2 from recently-sequestered labile organic carbon from the upper 30 cm with minor contribution from earlier, bomb-pulse carbon or from deeper pre-bomb carbon. No significant difference in age of emissions between the dredged and undredged sites was found.