Introduction: Over the past decades, considerable advances in understanding of cell biology at genetic, epigenetic and proteomic levels led to development of new strategies for better outcome of cancer therapy. One of these new strategies is targeting the class I PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, in that this pathway plays a key role in regulation of many cellular functions, including proliferation, survival, metabolism, autophagy and motility. Dysregulation of the class I PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway has been documented in a variety of human tumours and inhibition of this pathway has been observed to hamper tumour proliferation in vitro and prevent tumour progression in vivo and in clinic. More recently, emerging evidence suggests that the class I PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway is associated with Cancer Stem Cell (CSC) biology, in light of maintenance, viability and conventional therapy resistance of CSCs. The CSC theory conceptualizes that a subset of tumour cells with Stem Cell-like properties, including self-renewal, multipotency, differentiation, and resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, can recapitulate new tumours and resistance to cancer therapy. Materials and Methods: To explore class I PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and CSCs as therapeutic targets in canine oncology, in one series of experiments, smallmolecular inhibitors Wortmannin, ZSTK474, KP372-1 and Rapamycin, which selectively target pan-class I PI3K, pan-class I PI3K, Akt and mTOR, respectively, were utilized to treat canine cancer cell lines using inhibitors alone or in combination with conventional therapeutic drugs. The human acute lymphoblastic leukaemia of T-cell origin cell line (Jurkat T cell line) was used as a comparative control. In another, a stem cell culture system was performed to isolate CSCs from canine glioma J3T cell line. Subsequently, microarray analysis of transcriptional expression profiles of J3T spheres (the putative CSCs) versus J3T parental cells was performed. Results: In this study, small molecules ZSTK474 and KP372-1 were found to significantly decrease cell viability at lower micromolar and nanomolar ranges, respectively. Rapamycin decreased cell viability at lower micromolar concentrations. However, the efficacy of Wortmannin varied from one cell line to another. Dissection of the mechanism of these inhibitors using Western Blot analysis and annexin V staining showed that all inhibitors functioned by decreasing phosphorylation of class I PI3K pathway members. Notably, the efficacy of Wortmannin for this pathway inhibition is confined to certain cell lines. In addition, Wortmannin had shorter drug duration than the other three inhibitors. Annexin V staining showed that KP372-1 was a potent inducer of apoptosis, with decreasing potency in hierarchy order, Rapamycin, Wortmannin and ZSTK474. The data obtained from the combination of pan-class I PI3K inhibitor (Wortmannin or ZSTK474) and mTOR inhibitor (Rapamycin) suggested that additive/synergistic effects were, in part, due to inactivation of Akt. The class I PI3K pathway inhibitors enhanced the efficacy of Doxorubicin in SB cells but not in canine REM, 3132 and J3T cells. The CSC colonies of canine glioma J3T cells were successfully isolated and expanded in the neurosphere formation assay. By microarray analysis, several class I PI3K signaling network-associated genes, particularly IGFBP2 (27-fold), FYN (9.3- fold), and DDIT4 (8.5-fold), were found to be highly up-regulated in the J3T CSCs. However, the genes encoding components, such as Akt1 and eIF4E, of class I PI3K/Akt/mTOR axis signaling were either unchanged or down-regulated in the CSCs. The majority of the genes encoding translation initiation factors were also downregulated in the CSCs. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that class I PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway is critical for proliferation and survival of cell lines derived from human acute lymphoblastic leukemia of T cell origin (Jurkat T cell line) and a variety of canine tumours. However, it appears that this pathway is dispensible for maintainence and viability of the CSCs isolated from canine gloma J3T cell line. This study suggests that the strategy of dual inhibition of class I PI3K and mTOR kinases may have better outcomes than the combination inhibitors of this pathway (such as ZSTK474 and KP372-1) with Doxorubicin in canine oncology.

Devant l’incidence de la suractivation de la voie PI3K/Akt/mTOR sur les cancers, nous avons choisi d’inhiber cette voie de signalisation. Etant donné la forte analogie structurale qui existe entre les enzymes PI3K et mTOR, nous avons conçu des inhibiteurs doubles ciblant deux kinases majeures de la voie. Ces inhibiteurs possèdent un noyau original pyrido[3,2-d]pyrimidinique. Afin d’apporter de la diversité fonctionnelle et d’engendrer un effet thérapeutique, les sommets C-4, C-2 et C-7 furent fonctionnalisé séquentiellement selon l’ordre suivant. Tout d’abord, la position C-4 fut fonctionnalisée par des hétérocycles par substitution nucléophile aromatique. Puis divers cycles hétéroaromatiques furent introduits en position C-2 par couplage de type Suzuki-Miyaura. Enfin, des groupements variés furent insérés en position C-7 par différentes réactions. Dans l’étude de l’influence du squelette, l’isomère de position pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine fut également synthétisé et fonctionnalisé. Afin de tester ces inhibiteurs originaux, une plateforme de tests d’activités in vitro a été mise en place où cinq kits enzymatiques ont été optimisés sur la kinase PI3K, et un test sur mTOR. Ces tests exploitant la méthode de TR-FRET et de bioluminescence ont été validés avec des inhibiteurs de référence basés sur 4 facteurs : la corrélation entre IC50(littérature) et IC50(mesurée), Z’, R², et S/B.Au final, plus de soixante produits finaux ont été évalués in vitro sur PI3K et mTOR. La moitié présentent une IC50 inférieure à 100 nM et 5 ont des IC50 inférieures à 10 nM. Dans le cadre des échanges du Cancéropôle Grand Ouest, les produits ont été testés sur 6 lignées de cellules cancéreuses. / Considering the impact of overactivation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in cancer, we chose to inhibit this signaling pathway. Given the high structural similarity between the PI3K and mTOR enzymes, we designed dual inhibitors targeting two of the three major kinases of the pathway. These inhibitors posses an original pyrido[3,2-d] pyrimidine scaffold. In order to provide a functional diversity and generate a therapeutic effect, the peaks C-4, C-2 and C-7 were functionalized sequentially in the following order. Position C-4 was first functionalized with aliphatic heterocycles by nucleophilic aromatic substitution. Then, various heteroaromatic rings were introduced at the C-2 position by Suzuki-Miyaura coupling. Finally, different functions were inserted at the C-7 peak by different reactions. In order to study the influence of the scaffold, the pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine isomer was also synthesized and functionalized. To test these original inhibitors a platform testing in vitro activities was set up in which five assay kits were optimized for the kinase PI3K, and one kit for mTOR. These tests exploit the TR-FRET and bioluminescence methods and were validated with commercially available inhibitors based on four factors: the correlation between IC50(literature) and IC50(measured), Z’, R², and S/B. In the end, more than sixty final products were evaluated in vitro on PI3K and mTOR. Half present an IC50 below 100 nM and 5 of them show an IC50 under 10 nM. As part of collaboration within the Cancéropôle Grand Ouest, the products were also tested on six cancer cell lines.

La voie PI3Kinase/AKT/mTOR, est une cible thérapeutique du temsirolimus, un inhibiteur de mTORC1. Dans le but d'obtenir une inhibition plus importante de cette voie j’utilise dans ce projet deux nouvelles molécules :- le NVP-BEZ 235 (BEZ) qui inhibe à la fois mTORC1 et la PI3kinase- l'AZD8055 (AZD), un inhibiteur des complexes mTORC1 et mTORC2. En utilisant différentes lignées de LCM, j’ai démontré que l'effet de ces nouveaux inhibiteurs sur la survie cellulaire est plus important que celui du temsirolimus. Cela est probablement dû à l'inhibition de la phosphorylation de l'AKT et la 4EBP. La deuxième partie de ce projet étudie la synergie entre les inhibiteurs de m-TOR kinase et l'aracytine. Un effet additif important a été démontré. J’ai trouvé en western blot que l’aracytine inhibe la phosphorylation des substrats de la voie Akt –mTOR notamment le 4EBP. L’ibrutinib (un inhibiteur de la voie Btk) a un effet modeste mais j’ai pu démontrer qu'il est capable à induire une inhibition plus importante de la survie cellulaire lorsqu'il est associé à l’aracytine. Cependant il s'est révélé antagoniste aux inhibiteurs de la voie PI3K-AKT-mTOR, cela reste difficile à décortiquer. Enfin, j’ai trouvé un effet additif de l’ibrutinib en combinaison avec la doxorubicine. Cependant les inhibiteurs de m-TOR n'ont pas le même effet. Afin d’expliquer ces résultats, j’ai étudié l’effet de ces molécules sur l’expression de GSTPi, enzyme de détoxification connue pour avoir un rôle important dans la résistance de LCM à l’anthracycline. J’ai mis en évidence une diminution de l’expression de cet enzyme par l’Ibrutinib. En revanche, les inhibiteurs de mTOR n’ont pas un effet sur l’expression de GSTPi. L’ibrutinib pourrait donc sensibiliser le LCM à l’anthracycline en diminuant l’expression de GSTPi. / The PI3K / AKT / mTOR pathway is the target of Temsirolimus. However, important resistance is observed. We tried to obtain a more important inhibition of PI3K / AKT pathway using two new molecules :- NVP-BEZ 235 (BEZ) which inhibits both mTORC1 and PI3K- AZD8055 (AZD) an inhibitor of mTORC1 and mTORC2 complexes. Using different cell lines of MCL, we have shown that the effect of these new inhibitors on cell survival was more important than that of Temsirolimus. This is probably because contrary to Temsirolimus, the two new molecules can inhibit AKT and 4EBP phosphorylation. In the second part of this project we studied the synergy between the m-TOR kinase inhibitors and aracytine (conventional treatment of MCL). We revealed a significant additive effect in MCL cell lines. We demonstrated by Western blot analysis that aracytine inhibits S6 and 4EBP phosphorylation. This may explain the results obtained from this drug association. We then showed that Ibrutinib (an inhibitor of Btk pathway) can induce a significant inhibition of cell survival when combined with aracytine. In this study, Ibrutinib proved antagonist effect to PI3K-AKT-mTOR inhibitors. The mechanisms of these results remain unclear. Finally, we demonstrated an additive effect of Ibrutinib in combination with doxorubicin. We did not obtain the same results when we combined m-TOR inhibitors with doxorubicin. To explain these data, we studied the effect of these drugs on the expression of GSTPi by western blot. This enzyme is known to have an important role in MCL resistance to anthracycline. Importantly, Ibrutinib induced a decrease in the expression of GSTPi but AZD8055, Temsirolimus and NVP-BEZ235 had no effect.

O carcinoma de cabeça e pescoço é uma neoplasia maligna de origem epitelial que resulta em aproximadamente 500.000 novos casos por ano ao redor do mundo. Diversos estudos têm sido conduzidos de maneira a elucidar os mecanismos de proliferação e invasão desta doença, sendo a via de sinalização Akt/mTOR e proteínas relacionadas, apontada como uma das principais vias envolvidas em sua progressão. Sabe-se que células neoplásicas, bem como células de diferentes tecidos, podem ter seu comportamento modificado após terem sido irradiadas com laser em baixa intensidade (LLLT). Porém, os mecanismos de atuação da luz laser de baixa potência sobre estas células permanecem ainda não completamente esclarecidos. Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi o de analisar a viabilidade celular e expressão das proteínas Akt, pAkt, Hsp90, S6, pS6 e Ciclina D1 em duas linhagens celulares de carcinoma de boca (SCC9 e SCC25), bem como em uma linhagem de queratinócitos orais humanos com displasia (DOK) após irradiação com laser em baixa intensidade. O laser utilizado foi um diodo semicondutor de arseneto de Gálio e Alumínio (GaAlAs) operando nos comprimentos de onda vermelho (660nm) e infravermelho (780nm), com potência fixa em 40mW e três densidades de energia para cada comprimento de onda disponível: 2.05J/cm², 3.07J/cm² e 6.15J/cm². A análise de apoptose foi realizada por meio do teste de TUNEL e a expressão proteica foi obtida com imunofluorescência e western blotting. Após análise estatística por meio do método ANOVA dois critérios e testes de Tukey ou teste T de estudante, todos com nível de significância de 5%, pôde-se concluir que a LLLT induziu comportamentos distintos em cada uma das linhagens celulares utilizadas. Foi notado aumento, bem como diminuição da viabilidade celular, dependendo do comprimento de onda utilizado e das células irradiadas. A densidade de energia de 2.05J/cm² foi a que produziu efeitos mais significativos em SCC9. Para a linhagem celular SCC25, a dose mais relevante foi a de 3.07J/cm², enquanto que para a linhagem DOK, a dose de 6.15J/cm² causou efeitos mais proeminentes. Estas respectivas doses foram escolhidas para cada uma das linhagens para dar continuidade aos experimentos de Western Blotting e Imunofluorescência. Dentre os resultados mais relevantes obtidos com estas técnicas, pode-se citar a variação dos níveis de pS6 e Ciclina D1 para a linhagem DOK em determinados períodos. Já a linhagem SCC9 apresentou variação dos níveis de pAkt e Ciclina D1 nos períodos estudados. A linhagem SCC25 também teve as expressões de pAkt, pS6 e Ciclina D1 modificadas por LLLT. De maneira interessante, o aparecimento ou manutenção de uma isoforma de Hsp90 foi encontrado em SCC9 e SCC25 após irradiação laser. Por fim, a indução de apoptose foi detectada na linhagem SCC25. Em conclusão, pode-se dizer que a LLLT, como empregada neste estudo, foi capaz de aumentar a expressão de proteínas relacionadas à progressão e invasão em todas as linhagens estudadas. Além disso, a irradiação laser foi única, apesar de ter causado efeitos prolongados, algumas vezes até o último período estudado. / Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is an epithelial malignant neoplasm that accounts for approximately 500.000 new cases yearly around the world. Several studies have been conducted to elucidate the mechanisms of proliferation and invasion of this lesion, whereas the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway with its related proteins is being pointed out as one of the main pathways involved in HNSCC`s progression. Neoplastic cells, as well as cells that originate from different tissues may have their behavior modified by low level laser therapy (LLLT); however, the mechanisms through which the low level laser light interacts with these cells remain poorly understood. Thus, this study sought to evaluate the cell viability and the expression levels of Akt, pAkt, Hsp90, S6, pS6 and Cyclin D1 proteins in two oral squamous cell carcinoma cell lineages (SCC9 and SCC25) and in one oral dysplastic human keratinocyte cell line (DOK) after they had been treated with LLLT. The laser device was a semiconductor diode of Gallium and Aluminum Arsenate (GaAlAs), operating with wavelengths of 660nm (red) and 780nm (infrared), with a fixed power of 40mW and giving three different energy densities: 2.05J/cm², 3.07J/cm² and 6.15J/cm². Apoptosis was analyzed through TUNEL test and the protein expression was accessed with Immunofluorescence and Western blotting. After statistical analysis through two-way ANOVA and Tukey or Student`s T test, all of them with a level of significance of 5%, it was concluded that LLLT induced distinct behaviors to each of the studied cell lines. Increases and inhibitions in cell viabilities were detected depending on the wavelength and also on the irradiated cell line. The energy density of 2.05J/cm² produced the most significant findings over SCC9. On the other hand, in SCC25 the most relevant results were detected with 3.07J/cm², while the most prominent findings were seen with 6.15J/cm² when the cell line DOK was evaluated. In that way, these respective doses were chosen for each cell line to continue with Western blotting and Immunofluorescence. Among the most relevant findings, the variation of pS6 and Cyclin D1 levels can be cited for DOK in some evaluated periods. SCC9 presented both pAkt and Cyclin D1 variations in the studied periods. Besides that, SCC25 also had pAkt, pS6 and Cyclin D1 levels modified by LLLT. Interestingly, the appearance and maintenance of an Hsp90 isoform was found in SCC9 and SCC25 after laser irradiation. Moreover, the induction of apoptosis was detected for the SCC25 cell line. Finally, the LLLT employed herein was able to enhance the expression of proteins related to progression and invasion in all of the studied cell lines. In addition, there was a single laser irradiation, although it caused prolonged effects, sometimes through the latest evaluated period.

A desnutrição proteica (DP) pode ocasionar alterações na matriz extracelular (MEC) de diferentes órgãos e tecidos, inclusive o hematopoético, com comprometimento funcional. Estudos do nosso laboratório demonstraram, em modelo murino de DP, aumento da expressão proteica de fibronectina (FN) no estroma medular ósseo in vivo, principalmente na região subendosteal (local de fixação da célula tronco progenitora hemopoética). Já in vitro, no estroma medular ósseo, observou-se tanto o aumento quanto a diminuição de FN e a presença de suas isoformas. Essas alterações de FN parecem estar envolvidas com a hipoplasia da medula óssea (MO) em camundongos desnutridos. As modificações quantitativas de FN podem ser devidas: (i) à ação das metaloproteinases de matriz (MMP) responsáveis pela degradação das proteínas da MEC; (ii) aos inibidores de metaloproteinases (TIMP) que regulam a degradação da MEC; (iii) às alterações transcricionais, reguladas pela via de AKT/mTOR, que controla os splicing alternativos na FN, resultando em isoformas dessa proteína; (iv) a processos pós-transcricionais modulados por LC3, que aumenta a tradução do RNAm de FN. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi elucidar os mecanismos que alteram o turnover de FN no estroma medular ósseo em modelo murino de DP. Utilizamos camundongos, C57BL/6J machos, adultos, separados em dois grupos: controle e desnutrido, alimentados, ad libitum, com ração contendo 12% e 2% de proteína, respectivamente. Após cinco semanas de indução à desnutrição os camundongos foram eutanasiados, e coletado o material biológico. Avaliamos: o estado nutricional, o hematológico, a histologia da MO femoral bem como a determinação imunohistoquímica da FN, MMP-2 e MMP-9, determinação da expressão de FN e suas isoformas em células totais da MO, o estabelecimento do estroma medular ósseo in vitro, por 28 e 35 dias de cultivo. A partir das culturas foram avaliadas a expressão de RNAm de FN e suas isoformas, MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2, AKT, mTOR e LC3α e β, quantificação de MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2,TNFα, TGFβ e IL-1β e determinação de LC3β e proteínas da via de AKT/mTOR. Não observamos alterações na expressão do RNAm de FN e suas isoformas ex vivo e in vitro, mas um aumento da deposição de FN na MO.Também não observamos modificações na imunolocalização de MMP-2 e MMP-9 na MO e na atividade dessas proteínas no sobrenadante de culturas de células estromais in vitro, mas houve aumento da expressão do RNAm de MMP-9 em 28 dias de cultivo. Não detectamos alterações na expressão de RNAm e na concentração de TIMP-1 e TIMP-2 no sobrenadante das culturas. Houve redução significativa de TNFα e TGFβ no sobrenadante das culturas de 28 dias. Observamos aumento da expressão do RNAm de mTOR em culturas de 28 dias e LC3α e LC3β em 35 dias de células estromais. Encontramos menor fosforilação de PI3K, AKT, PTEN, mTOR e mTOR total e aumento de LC3β em culturas de 28 dias, mas redução de LC3β em 35 dias. Em função dos dados inferimos que a DP conduz a alterações da FN que não estão relacionadas à ação de MMPs e TIMPs e sim a modificações de LC3β e da via de AKT/mTOR. / Protein malnutrition (PM) can lead changes in extracellular matrix (ECM) from several organs and tissues, including hematopoietic, with functional impairments. Research from our laboratory demonstrated, in a murine model of protein malnutrition, increase in proteic expression of fibronectin (FN) in vivo bone marrow stroma, principally in subendosteal region (attachment site of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell - HSPC). It was observed as both an increase and a decrease in the presence of FN and its isoforms in vitro bone marrow stroma. These FN changes seem to be related to bone marrow (BM) hypoplasia in malnourished mice. Quantitative FN changes may be due to: (i) action of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) responsible for ECM proteins degradation; (ii) tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP) that regulate ECM degradation; (iii) transicional changes regulated by AKT/mTOR pathway, which controls alternative splicing in FN, resulting in isoforms from this protein; (iv) post-transcriptional processes modulated by LC3 that increases FN mRNA translation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to elucidade the mechanisms that changes the FN turnover in bone marrow stroma in a murine model of PM. C57BL/6J, adult and male mice were used and divided into two groups: control and malnourished, fed ad libitum with ration containing 12% and 2% of protein, respectively. After five weeks of induction malnutrition, mice were euthanized and the biological material was collected. We evaluated: nutritional and hematologic status, the femoral BM histology, immunohistochemistry determination of FN, MMP-2 and MMP-9, the FN and its isoforms expression determination in total BM cells, establishment of in vitro bone marrow stroma for 28 and 35 days of culture. From the cultures were evaluated FN mRNA expressions and its isoforms, MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2, AKT, mTOR, LC3α and β, quantification of MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2,TNFα, TGFβ and IL-1β and determination of LC3β and AKT/mTOR proteins. No changes were observed, ex vivo and in vitro, in the expression of FN mRNA and its isoforms, but there was a FN deposition increase in BM. We did not observe modifications in MMP-2 e MMP-9 immunolocalization in BM and in these proteins activity in the supernatant of in vitro stromal cell culture, but there was an increase in MMP-9 mRNA expression after 28 days of culture. We did not detect changes in mRNA and in TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 expressions in the supernatant of cultures. There was significant reduction of TNFα and TGFβ in the cultures supernatant of 28 days. We observed an increase of mTOR RNAm in 28 days cultures and also LC3α and LC3β in stromal cells with 35 days. We found lower phosphorylation of PI3K, AKT, PTEN, mTOR e total mTOR and an LC3β increase in 28 days cultures, yet an LC3β reduction in 35 days. According to the data we conclude that PM leads to FN changes that are not related to MMPs and TIMPs actions, but the LC3β and AKT/mTOR pathway modifications.

Le muscle squelettique s'adapte en réponse à diverses influences en modulant sa masse et ses propriétés contractiles et métaboliques. Il est ainsi rapporté que l'hypoxie sévère a un effet délétère sur la masse et les capacités oxydatives du muscle, et pourrait ralentir la maturation du phénotype contractile au cours du développement post-natal. Cependant, les mécanismes de contrôle de cette plasticité musculaire ne sont pas clairement identifiés. Le but de ce travail était de déterminer le rôle de l'hypoxie environnementale sur le contrôle de la masse et l'adaptation du phénotype du muscle en croissance (hypertrophie de surcharge du plantaris après ablation de ses muscles agonistes et régénération du soléaire après lésions étendues induites par la notexine). L'exposition hypoxique limite transitoirement l'hypertrophie induite par la surcharge fonctionnelle, tandis qu'elle accentue la fonte musculaire en réprimant la formation et la croissance des néo-fibres au cours des étapes précoces de la régénération. Ces résultats seraient en partie expliqués par la désactivation partielle de la principale voie de protéosynthèse, la voie mTOR, par un mécanisme indépendant d'Akt. Parmi les inhibiteurs endogènes de mTOR étudiés (REDD1, BNIP-3 et l'AMPK), nous montrons que l'activation prononcée de l'AMPK en hypoxie pourrait réprimer l'activité de mTOR au cours de la régénération, alors que le mécanisme responsable de l'inhibition de mTOR n'a pas pu être identifié dans le modèle de surcharge. Le système protéolytique ubiquitine/protéasome-dépendant, évalué à partir de l'expression des atrogènes MURF1 et MAFbx, pourrait également expliquer en partie l'altération de l'hypertrophie de surcharge en hypoxie. Nos résultats soulignent par ailleurs que l'activité des cellules satellites serait réprimée au cours des premiers jours de régénération musculaire, conduisant à réduire la formation et la croissance des myotubes. Malgré cette perturbation précoce de la croissance musculaire, l'exposition prolongée en hypoxie ne limite pas l'hypertrophie de surcharge et la récupération de la masse du muscle lésé. Ceci démontre que les signaux anaboliques induits dans ces deux situations de croissance musculaire l'emportent très largement sur les signaux cataboliques de l'hypoxie. L'analyse des propriétés métaboliques et contractiles met en évidence que l'hypoxie altère les capacités oxydatives du muscle en croissance, mais les mécanismes impliqués dans cette réponse adaptative restent à identifier. Par ailleurs, l'hypoxie ne constitue pas un stimulus métabolique suffisant pour altérer la transition du phénotype contractile du muscle en surcharge et la récupération complète du phénotype contractile du muscle lésé. Elle contribue uniquement à ralentir très modérément et transitoirement l'adaptation phénotypique du muscle en surcharge, et à modifier le profil contractile du muscle durant la phase de dégénérescence musculaire. / Skeletal muscle adapts to various influences, by modulating both its mass and contractile and metabolic properties. It was reported that severe hypoxia impairs muscle mass and oxidative capacities and could reduce the fast-to-slow fiber transition during post-natal development. However, mechanisms involved in muscle plasticity during hypoxia exposure are not clearly identified. This work aimed to determine the role played by ambient hypoxia on the control of muscle mass and muscle phenotype during muscle growth (functional overload-induced hypertrophy of plantaris after removal of its synergist muscles and regeneration of soleus after extensive injury induced by notexin injection). Hypoxia exposure transiently minimizes the overload-induced hypertrophy, while it enhances the muscle-mass loss by repressing the formation and growth of nascent fibers during the early steps of regeneration. These results could be partly due to an impairment of the mTOR signaling activation, the main pathway involved in protein synthesis, independently of Akt. Among the endogenous repressors of mTOR studied (REDD1, BNIP-3 and AMPK), we show that the marked activation of AMPK in hypoxia could repress mTOR activity during regeneration, whereas the mechanism involved in mTOR inhibition remains unknown in the overload model. The ubiquitin/proteasome-dependant system, assessed from expression of the two atrogenes MURF1 and MAFbx, could also partly explain the hypoxia-induced alteration of muscle hypertrophy. Nevertheless, our findings show that activity of satellite cells could be repressed during the first days of regeneration, leading to reduce formation and growth of myotubes. Although muscle growth is early impaired, prolonged hypoxia exposure does not limit the overload-induced hypertrophy and the muscle mass recovery of injured muscle. This demonstrates that anabolic signals induced in these models of drastic muscle growth widely prevail on hypoxia-induced catabolic signals. The analysis of metabolic and contractile properties shows that hypoxia alters oxidative capacities in growing muscle, but mechanisms involved in this adaptive response remain to be elucidated. Moreover, hypoxia is not a sufficient metabolic stimulus to impair the fast-to-slow fiber transition in overloaded muscle, and the complete recovery of the contractile phenotype in injured muscle. It only contributes to transiently and modestly slow down the fast-to-slow fiber shift in overloaded muscle, and to modify the contractile profile of muscle during the degeneration phase.

A insuficiência cardíaca (IC) é a via final comum da maioria das cardiomiopatias e outras doenças do aparelho circulatório. Considerando a prevalência crescente e a morbimortalidade associada representa um importante problema de saúde pública. Em quadros mais avançados, além do comprometimento funcional, portadores de IC apresentam perda de massa muscular excessiva que pode culminar em caquexia cardíaca; condição que contribui para o mau prognóstico e a mortalidade aumentadas. A massa muscular é regulada pelo balanço entre estímulos anabólicos e catabólicos. A quinase Akt vêm sendo considerando uma importante quinase na regulação do crescimento muscular por controlar o anabolismo proteico. Dessa forma, ativadores da Akt (IGF-I e insulina), bem como proteínas alvo da sinalização da Akt (mTOR e GSK3) são importantes mediadores na manutenção da massa muscular e podem ser regulados por estímulos metabólicos, nutricionais e mecânicos. Assim, o objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar a contribuição da via de sinalização IGF-I/Akt/mTOR na atrofia muscular desencadeada pela IC tanto em humanos quanto em modelo experimental, bem como o efeito do treinamento físico aeróbico (TFA). Nossos resultados demonstraram que em biópsias do vasto lateral de pacientes portadores de IC classe II houve redução na expressão de mRNA de todas as isoformas de IGF-I e na expressão das proteínas IGFBP-3, Akt1, GSK3, pGSK3Ser9, mTOR e tendência a redução na pmTORSer2448 (p=0,08) e aumento na pAMPKThr172. Esses resultados foram acompanhados pela redução no VO2 pico desses pacientes. O TFA de 12 semanas levou a um aumento não significativo na expressão de mRNA da isoforma IGF-I Ea (p=0,07) e IGF-I PAM (p=0,06). Também observou-se aumento na pAMPKThr172 e tendência a aumento na Akt1 (p=0,07) e mTOR (p=0,06). Em modelo experimental de IC, no músculo sóleo observou-se redução na expressão das proteínas IGF-I, PI3K, pAktSer473,pGSK3Ser9 e aumento da pAMPKThr172. O TFA de 8 semanas promoveu aumento na expressão do mRNA das isoformas de IGF-I Ea, Eb e IGF-I PAM, bem como na expressão das proteínas IGFI, PI3K, pAktSer473, pmTORSer2448 e redução na pAMPKThr172. O conjunto de alterações promovido pelo TFA foi associado à maior tolerância ao esforço físico e ganho no desempenho motor em Rota Rod, além de prevenir a atrofia muscular. Quando esses animais foram tratados com rapamicina, um inibidor farmacológico da mTOR, o efeito do TFA na prevenção da atrofia muscular foi abolido. Juntos, esses resultados apoiam a hipótese de que a via de sinalização IGF-I/Akt/mTOR está envolvida no reestabelecimento muscular na IC induzida pelo TFA / Heart failure (HF) is a common ultimate consequence for the most cardiomyopathies and other diseases from circulatory system. Due its growing prevalence and morbimortality is an important public-health problem. In more advanced cases, besides functional impairment, HF patients present an excessive skeletal muscle loss which can lead to cardiac cachexia; a condition associated to a poor prognostic and increased mortality. Skeletal muscle mass is regulated by the balance between anabolic and catabolic stimuli. Akt kinase, although involved with the protein synthesis pathway, is able to regulates the skeletal muscle growth via anabolism and catabolism control. An importante role in the skeletal muscle growing has been attributed to the Akt kinase due its ability to control protein synthesis. Thus, activators (IGF-I and insulin) as well as target proteins in the Akt signaling pathway (mTOR and GSK3) are important mediators in the skeletal muscle mass homeostasis being regulated by anabolic, nutritional and mechanic stimuli. Therefore, the aim of the presente study was to evaluate the contribution of IGF-I/Akt/mTOR contribution to the muscle atrophy induced by HF in humans and mice. Additionally, the effect of aerobic exercise training were evaluated. Our data demonstrated that in biopsies obtained in the vastus lateral from class II IC patients occurred a reduction in the expression of all the forms of IGF investigated and in the expression of proteins such as IGFBP-3, Akt1, GSK3, pGSK3Ser9, mTOR, and tendency to reduce pmTORSer2448 (p=0.08) and to increase pAMPKThr172. These results were accompained by the reduction of peak VO2 in these patients. Twelve weeks of aerobic exercise training promoted a non-significant increase in the expression of the IGF-I Ea (p=0.07) and IGF-I PAM (p=0.06) mRNA expression. Moreover, it was observed an increase to pAMPKThr172, and tendency of increase for Akt1 (p=0.07) and mTOR (p=0.06) mRNA expression. In a experimental model of IC, it was observed a reduction in the expression of IGF I, PI3K, pAktSer473, pGSK3Ser9 and increase of pAMPKThr172. Eight weeks of aerobic exercise training increased the mRNA of IGF-I Ea, Eb and IGF-I PAM isoforms, as well as in the expression of IGF-I, PI3K, pAktSer473, pmTORSer2448 and pAMPKThr172 reduction. The changes induced by aerobic exercise training were associated with a higher tolerance to exercise and motor performance in rota rod besides prevent muscular atrophy. When treated with a inhibitor of mTOR, rapamycin, the adaptations induced by aerobic exercise training were blunted, supporting the hypothesis that the IGF-I/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway is involved in the recovering of muscle mass induced by physical training

Le chondrosarcome (CHS) est caractérisé par une grande chimio et radiorésistance ; il y a un besoin urgent de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques pour cette tumeur. Parmi celles-ci, certaines approches d'immunothérapie pourraient être d'un grand intérêt. Nous étudions actuellement l'implication du système immunitaire dans la progression du CHS et la réponse thérapeutique à la fois sur des échantillons humains et dans le modèle de chondrosarcome de rat (SRC).Dans le CHS humain et de rat, des infiltrats immunitaires composés de lymphocytes et macrophages ont été identifiés dans la zone péritumorale. L’infiltration immunitaire est en corrélation avec l’évolution de la tumeur (grade, envahissement et taille). L'expression de PD1 et PDL1 ont été détectée dans les infiltrats immunitaires et cellules tumorales du CHS chez l’homme et le rat. Le niveau d'expression PD-L1 en corrélation avec la survie des patients et le taux de rechute. Dans le model SRC, la déplétion sélective de lymphocytes T a entrainé une accélération de la progression tumorale, tandis que la déplétion de macrophages l’a ralenti. Les splénocytes isolés de rats porteurs de CHS ont montré une cytotoxicité spécifique dirigée contre les cellules de chondrosarcome (27%), qui a diminué de manière significative avec des rats appauvrie en CD3 (11%). La voie de signalisation PI3K/mTOR ne peut pas être associée à une immunothérapie car elle induit une action immunosuppressive in vivo.L'environnement immunitaire contribue à la progression du CHS à la fois chez l’homme et chez le rat, ce qui suggère que une approche immunomodulatrice avec des anticorps bloquant PDL1 pourrait être testée pour le CHS / Chondrosarcoma is highly resistant to chemotherapy and radiation and there is an urgent need in developing new therapeutic strategies for this malignancy; among these, some immunotherapy approaches could be of great interest. We are currently investigating the immune system implication in chondrosarcoma progression and therapeutic response both on human samples and in rat chondrosarcoma model (SRC). In human and rat chondrosarcoma, immune infiltrates composed of lymphocytes and macrophages were identified in the peritumoral area. Immune infiltrates composition was found correlated with tumors characteristics and evolution (grade, invasiveness and size). Expression of PD-1 and PD-L1 was detected in CHS immune infiltrates, both in human and rat (and on tumor cells). PD-L1 expression level correlated with patients survival and relapse rate. In SRC, T lymphocytes depletion resulted in an accelerated tumor progression, while CD163+ macrophages depletion slowed down tumor progression. Splenocytes isolated from CHS bearing SRC showed a specific cytotoxicity directed against chondrosarcoma cells (27%), which significantly decreased in CD3 depleted SRC (11%). The immune environment contributes to CHS progression in both human and animal models, this associated with expression of immune checkpoint PD1/PDL1 suggest that immunomodulatory approaches with PD-L1 blocking antibody could be applied in CHS; this approach is currently being tested in SRC

L'objectif principal de ma thèse a été la caractérisation de l'histoire évolutive des voies de signalisation au travers d'une double approche: (i) l'analyse phylogénétique de leurs composés; et (ii) l'identification et la caractérisation de leurs interactions par l'analyse des interactomes d'organismes modèles. Or, bien que de nombreux outils soient disponibles pour la reconstruction d'arbres de gènes individuels, peu de méthodes ont été développées pour l'étude d'un ensemble de protéines impliquées dans un même processus cellulaire. Pourtant, au sein de la cellule, la plupart des protéines agissent en interaction avec d'autres protéines. Dans un premier temps, j'ai étudié l'histoire évolutive de la famille des PI3K (Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases). Cette première analyse phylogénétique détaillée m'a permis de mettre en place une méthodologie applicable aux voies de signalisation. Un problème important rencontré dans cette étude a consisté en la sélection de transcrits alternatifs et ceci m'a conduit à développer un logiciel dédié nommé BATfinder (\Best Aligned Transcript finder). Dans le but d'étudier la voie de signalisation AKT/mTOR, j'ai effectué l'implémentation de la méthodologie validée avec les PI3K. Cette implémentation a pris la forme d'un pipeline automatique nommé EPINe (Easy Phylogenetics for Interaction Networks). Ce pipeline est théoriquement utilisable pour l'analyse phylogénétique de tout réseau métabolique eucaryote / The main goal of my thesis was the characterization of the evolutionary history of signalling pathways through a twofold approach: (i) the phylogenetic analysis of their components; and (ii) the identification and characterization of their interactions by the analysis of model organisms interactomes. While many tools are available for single genes tree reconstruction, only a few methods have been developed for the study of a set of proteins involved in the same cellular process. However, inside the cell, most of proteins interact with others.Initially, I studied the evolutionary history of the PI3K family (Phosphati-dylinositol 3-kinases). This first detailed phylogenetic analysis allowed me to set up a methodology suitable for signalling pathways. One of the important problems encountered in this study was the selection of alternative transcripts and this led me to develop a software called BATfinder (Best Aligned Transcript finder ). In order to study the AKT/mTOR signalling pathway, I have implemented the methodology previously validated with PI3Ks. This implementation was carried out as an automated pipeline called EPINe (Easy Phylogenetics for Interaction Networks). This pipeline is theoretically usable for the phylogenetic analysis of any eukaryotic metabolic network

A desnutrição proteica (DP) pode ocasionar alterações na matriz extracelular (MEC) de diferentes órgãos e tecidos, inclusive o hematopoético, com comprometimento funcional. Estudos do nosso laboratório demonstraram, em modelo murino de DP, aumento da expressão proteica de fibronectina (FN) no estroma medular ósseo in vivo, principalmente na região subendosteal (local de fixação da célula tronco progenitora hemopoética). Já in vitro, no estroma medular ósseo, observou-se tanto o aumento quanto a diminuição de FN e a presença de suas isoformas. Essas alterações de FN parecem estar envolvidas com a hipoplasia da medula óssea (MO) em camundongos desnutridos. As modificações quantitativas de FN podem ser devidas: (i) à ação das metaloproteinases de matriz (MMP) responsáveis pela degradação das proteínas da MEC; (ii) aos inibidores de metaloproteinases (TIMP) que regulam a degradação da MEC; (iii) às alterações transcricionais, reguladas pela via de AKT/mTOR, que controla os splicing alternativos na FN, resultando em isoformas dessa proteína; (iv) a processos pós-transcricionais modulados por LC3, que aumenta a tradução do RNAm de FN. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi elucidar os mecanismos que alteram o turnover de FN no estroma medular ósseo em modelo murino de DP. Utilizamos camundongos, C57BL/6J machos, adultos, separados em dois grupos: controle e desnutrido, alimentados, ad libitum, com ração contendo 12% e 2% de proteína, respectivamente. Após cinco semanas de indução à desnutrição os camundongos foram eutanasiados, e coletado o material biológico. Avaliamos: o estado nutricional, o hematológico, a histologia da MO femoral bem como a determinação imunohistoquímica da FN, MMP-2 e MMP-9, determinação da expressão de FN e suas isoformas em células totais da MO, o estabelecimento do estroma medular ósseo in vitro, por 28 e 35 dias de cultivo. A partir das culturas foram avaliadas a expressão de RNAm de FN e suas isoformas, MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2, AKT, mTOR e LC3α e β, quantificação de MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2,TNFα, TGFβ e IL-1β e determinação de LC3β e proteínas da via de AKT/mTOR. Não observamos alterações na expressão do RNAm de FN e suas isoformas ex vivo e in vitro, mas um aumento da deposição de FN na MO.Também não observamos modificações na imunolocalização de MMP-2 e MMP-9 na MO e na atividade dessas proteínas no sobrenadante de culturas de células estromais in vitro, mas houve aumento da expressão do RNAm de MMP-9 em 28 dias de cultivo. Não detectamos alterações na expressão de RNAm e na concentração de TIMP-1 e TIMP-2 no sobrenadante das culturas. Houve redução significativa de TNFα e TGFβ no sobrenadante das culturas de 28 dias. Observamos aumento da expressão do RNAm de mTOR em culturas de 28 dias e LC3α e LC3β em 35 dias de células estromais. Encontramos menor fosforilação de PI3K, AKT, PTEN, mTOR e mTOR total e aumento de LC3β em culturas de 28 dias, mas redução de LC3β em 35 dias. Em função dos dados inferimos que a DP conduz a alterações da FN que não estão relacionadas à ação de MMPs e TIMPs e sim a modificações de LC3β e da via de AKT/mTOR. / Protein malnutrition (PM) can lead changes in extracellular matrix (ECM) from several organs and tissues, including hematopoietic, with functional impairments. Research from our laboratory demonstrated, in a murine model of protein malnutrition, increase in proteic expression of fibronectin (FN) in vivo bone marrow stroma, principally in subendosteal region (attachment site of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell - HSPC). It was observed as both an increase and a decrease in the presence of FN and its isoforms in vitro bone marrow stroma. These FN changes seem to be related to bone marrow (BM) hypoplasia in malnourished mice. Quantitative FN changes may be due to: (i) action of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) responsible for ECM proteins degradation; (ii) tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP) that regulate ECM degradation; (iii) transicional changes regulated by AKT/mTOR pathway, which controls alternative splicing in FN, resulting in isoforms from this protein; (iv) post-transcriptional processes modulated by LC3 that increases FN mRNA translation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to elucidade the mechanisms that changes the FN turnover in bone marrow stroma in a murine model of PM. C57BL/6J, adult and male mice were used and divided into two groups: control and malnourished, fed ad libitum with ration containing 12% and 2% of protein, respectively. After five weeks of induction malnutrition, mice were euthanized and the biological material was collected. We evaluated: nutritional and hematologic status, the femoral BM histology, immunohistochemistry determination of FN, MMP-2 and MMP-9, the FN and its isoforms expression determination in total BM cells, establishment of in vitro bone marrow stroma for 28 and 35 days of culture. From the cultures were evaluated FN mRNA expressions and its isoforms, MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2, AKT, mTOR, LC3α and β, quantification of MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2,TNFα, TGFβ and IL-1β and determination of LC3β and AKT/mTOR proteins. No changes were observed, ex vivo and in vitro, in the expression of FN mRNA and its isoforms, but there was a FN deposition increase in BM. We did not observe modifications in MMP-2 e MMP-9 immunolocalization in BM and in these proteins activity in the supernatant of in vitro stromal cell culture, but there was an increase in MMP-9 mRNA expression after 28 days of culture. We did not detect changes in mRNA and in TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 expressions in the supernatant of cultures. There was significant reduction of TNFα and TGFβ in the cultures supernatant of 28 days. We observed an increase of mTOR RNAm in 28 days cultures and also LC3α and LC3β in stromal cells with 35 days. We found lower phosphorylation of PI3K, AKT, PTEN, mTOR e total mTOR and an LC3β increase in 28 days cultures, yet an LC3β reduction in 35 days. According to the data we conclude that PM leads to FN changes that are not related to MMPs and TIMPs actions, but the LC3β and AKT/mTOR pathway modifications.