The use of fly ash as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) has increased in the last century due to its various environmental benefits as a recycled product. Within the last 60 years, it has been found that it can be used to effectively control damage induced by Alkali-Silica Reaction. However, it is not completely understood how to properly assign a dosage of fly ash to control the reaction. This depends greatly on the fly ash characteristics (e.g. composition, particle size, and reactivity), the reactivity of the aggregate (e.g. high to low reactivity level) and the environmental exposure conditions. The characteristics of the fly ash depend on the coal source being burned and the burning conditions that result in the fly ash formation. A major concern when supplementing cement with fly ash for ASR mitigation is the effect of the alkali contribution of the fly ash to the concrete pore solution. Current test methods cannot accurately determine the alkali contribution of fly ashes and there is no standardized test method to doing so. When contributed by the implementation of a SCM, alumina has been found to play a role in the ability of an SCM to mitigate ASR-induced damage. It has been observed that fly ashes containing higher levels of alumina (18-25%) tend to improve concrete durabilty more effectively when compared to fly ashes with lower levels of alumina. Additionally, the use of metakaolin, which is composed of 45-50% alumina, has been found to lessen expansion with a lower percentage of cement replacement than would be required if fly ash is used. Furthermore, the use of fly ash with another SCM material, a high quality ultra-fine fly ash or alumino-siliceous metakaolin, in ternary blends may improve the performance of fly ash resulting in a broadening of the spectrum of SCMs usable for ASR mitigation. For successful use of SCMs, it is important to develop an understanding of the alkalisilica reaction and the ability of such SCMs to control expansion. This report provides an overview of alkali-silica reaction and the use of fly ash and metakaolin as SCMs to mitigate expansion due to the reaction, with an emphasis on the role of alumina when contributed from the two materials. / Graduation date: 2012

This research develops two novel experimental techniques based on nonlinear acoustics/ultrasound to provide an ultra-accelerated characterization of alkali-reactivity of aggregates. Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is a deleterious reaction occurring between reactive siliceous minerals present in some aggregates and alkalis mainly contributed by the cement, but also present in some deicing chemicals. With increasing reports of ASR-induced damage in transportation structures, there is a critical need for fast and reliable test methods for the screening of aggregates and aggregate/paste combinations. Currently, the accelerated mortar bar test (AMBT), which measures expansion, is the most commonly used test method. Also used is the concrete prism test (CPT), another expansion-based method, which requires at least one year testing time, limiting the practical utility of this method. In addition, petrographic analysis can be performed to identify potentially reactive minerals in aggregates but requires training and may not be appropriate for assessment of aggregate/paste combinations. Finally, linear acoustic methods such as wave speed and attenuation measurements can be used for the assessment of ASR, but the sensitivity of linear acoustic methods to ASR-induced damage is considered to be relatively low. Therefore, critical limitations exist in the existing test methods. In light of recent advances in nonlinear acoustics (which are more sensitive to small-scale damage than linear acoustics), the purpose of this research is the development and assessment of an accelerated method for evaluating the potential for alkali reactivity in aggregate and aggregate/paste combinations by combining advanced ultrasonic methods with standard test procedures. In fact, two nonlinear acoustic methods are developed under this research - nonlinear wave modulation spectroscopy (NWMS) and nonlinear impact resonance acoustic spectroscopy (NIRAS) - and are used to characterize the changes in material nonlinearity as a result of the progressive ASR damage during the standard mortar bar and concrete prism testing. Following the AMBT and CPT, nonlinear acoustic techniques are applied to both mortar bars and concrete prism samples. Nonlinearity parameters are defined as the indicator of growing ASR damage, and measurement results clearly show that these nonlinearity parameters are more sensitive to the ASR damage than the linear parameters used in the linear acoustic measurements, particularly at early ages. Different aggregates with varying alkali-reactivity are effectively distinguished with the proposed experimental techniques in a timely manner, particularly for those aggregates with similar levels of reactivity, as determined by AMBT. The effect of a Class C fly ash addition on nonlinear properties was also investigated using the NIRAS measurements through a comparison of test results between mortar samples blended with fly ash and without fly ash. As complementary supports of the experimental results, petrographic analyses and theoretical modeling are also performed, and these results are well correlated with results from the NWMS and NIRAS techniques. Through a comparison with results from accompanying expansion measurements and linear acoustic methods, the proposed nonlinear acoustic techniques show their advantages to accelerate the assessment of alkali-reactivity of aggregates. Under AMBT, reactive aggregates were identifiable as early as a few days of testing. With CPT, reactive aggregates were differentiated as early as a few weeks. Overall, the coupling of the developed nonlinear test methods with standard expansion tests suggests that test durations could be potentially reduced by half, especially for AMBT tests.

This research focuses on the characterization of damage accumulation in concrete specimens. Specifically, a nonlinear vibration technique is used to characterize the damage introduced by ongoing alkali-silica reactions (ASR). The nonlinear resonance testing consists of an analysis of the frequency response of concrete specimens subjected to impact loading. ASR introduces a third gel like phase, which can be expansive in the presence of moisture. The result of ASR is the formation of microcracks and debonding between aggregate and cement phases. Collectively, these changes act to increase the specimens' nonlinearity. As a result, it is found that the concrete samples exhibit nonlinear behavior; mainly a decrease in resonance frequency with an increasing level of excitation strain. The relationship between the amplitude of the response and the amount of frequency shift is used as a parameter to describe the nonlinearity of the specimen. The specimens used in this research are of varying reactivity with respect to ASR, which is induced in accordance with ASTM C 1293. The level of nonlinearity is used as a measure of damage caused by the progress of ASR throughout the one year test duration. These nonlinear resonance results are compared to the traditional measures of expansion described in the standard. The robustness and repeatability of the proposed technique is also investigated by repeated testing of samples assumed to be at a specific damage state. Finally, a petrographic staining technique is used to complement nonlinearity measurements and to further gain understanding of ASR. The results of this study show that the proposed nonlinear resonance methods are very sensitive to microstructural changes and have great potential for quantitative damage assessment in concrete.

The alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) is a pathological manifestation that occurs in concrete structures and has concerned engineers and users of construction for decades, throughout the world. Basically, it is a chemical reaction resulting from the interaction between alkalis released from cement and some silicates in the reactive aggregates. Aggregates have been studied and there are many disagreements as to the involvement of the granitic aggregates in the AAR. This study was originated from the absence of findings on the influence of compositional and microstructural characteristics of granite aggregates in the occurrence of AAR and the inadequacy of standardized testing methods for the prediction of reaction. This research presents contributions to the methods for prediction of the AAR using microwave treatment to accelerate the formation of reaction products. For this purpose, three granitic aggregates from Sergipe were used as reference for validation of the applicability of the technique. The selected experimental conditions have allowed rapid access to reactive mineral phases and formation of the reaction products. The results have showed that differences in reactive behavior of granitic aggregates are correlated to morphological aspects of quartz, as the presence of quartz subgrains and deformed quartz grains. / A reação álcali-agregado (RAA) é uma manifestação patológica que ocorre em estruturas de concreto e tem preocupado engenheiros e usuários da construção civil há décadas. Basicamente, é uma reação química decorrente da interação entre os álcalis do cimento e alguns silicatos dos agregados considerados reativos. Agregados do mundo inteiro têm sido estudados e muitas divergências existem quanto à participação dos agregados graníticos na RAA. Este estudo partiu da necessidade de conclusões sobre a influência das características composicionais e microestruturais dos agregados graníticos na ocorrência da RAA e da inadequação dos métodos de ensaios normatizados para a previsão da reação. Diante deste cenário, esta pesquisa apresenta contribuições para a previsão da RAA utilizando o tratamento com microondas para acelerar a formação dos produtos de reação. Para isso, três agregados graníticos do Estado de Sergipe foram usados como referência para a validação da aplicabilidade da técnica. As condições experimentais selecionadas permitiram o rápido acesso às fases minerais responsáveis pela reatividade e a formação de produtos da RAA. Os resultados mostraram que as diferenças no comportamento reacional dos agregados graníticos estão correlacionadas a aspectos morfológicos do quartzo, como a presença de subgrãos de quartzo e de grãos de quartzos deformados.

Using recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) as a replacement for natural aggregate in new concrete is a promising way to increase the overall sustainability of new concrete. This has been hindered, however, by a general perception that RCA is a sub-standard material due to the lack of technical guidance, specifically related to long-term durability, on incorporating RCA into new concrete. The goal of this research project was to determine whether current testing methods could be used to assess the potential alkali-silica reactivity of concrete incorporating RCA. The test methods investigated were ASTM C1260 and ASTM C1567 for assessing natural aggregate susceptibility to alkali-silica reactivity (ASR), and the ability of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) to mitigate ASR, respectively. Seven different RCA sources were investigated. It was determined that ASTM C1260 was effective in detecting reactivity but expansion varied based on RCA processing. Depending on the aggregate type and the extent of processing, up to a 100% increase in expansion was observed. Replicate testing was performed at four university laboratories to evaluate repeatability and consistency of results. The authors recommend modification to the mixing and aggregate preparation procedures, when testing the reactivity of RCA using ASTM C 1260. This study also investigated the efficacy of replacing portland cement with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), known to mitigate alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in concrete with virgin aggregates, to control ASR in concrete incorporating reactive RCA. The SCMs investigated as part of this study included: fly ash (class F), silica fume, and metakaolin. The results of modified alkali-silica reactivity tests, ASTM C1260 and ASTM C1567 (AMBT), are presented for two different recycled concrete aggregates when using 100% portland cement, binary blends of portland cement and fly ash, and ternary blends of portland cement, fly ash and metakaolin or silica fume. The results indicate that SCMs can effectively mitigate ASR in concrete made with RCA. A 40% replacement of portland cement with class F fly ash was able to reduce expansions to below 0.10% in the AMBT for concrete containing 100% of a highly reactive recycled concrete aggregate. A ternary blend, however, of portland cement with a class F fly ash and metakaolin was most effective for both RCAs tested in this study. Higher levels of mitigation may be required for some RCAs, compared to the level required to mitigate ASR in concrete made with their original natural aggregates, depending on the age and composition of the RCA. / Graduation date: 2012

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