This dissertation aims to develop an ethical system that can properly frame such questions as the morality of large-scale efforts to transform inanimate parts of nature, for example, proposals to terraform Mars. Such an ethics diverges from traditional approaches to ethics because it expands the class of entities regarded as morally considerable to include inanimate entities. I approach the task by building on the environmental ethical theory of Paul W. Taylor, as developed in his 1986 book Respect for Nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics. I discuss various criticisms of Taylor and propose two extensions to his theory: an expansion of the scope of moral considerability to include all concrete material objects and the introduction of the concept of variable moral significance (the notion that all entities have inherent worth but some have more than others). Using Taylor’s modified and extended theory as a foundation, I develop something I call universal ethics. This is an ethical framework whose key elements are a fundamental ethical attitude of respect for the world and a principle of minimal harm. Universal ethics regards all concrete material entities, whether living or not, and whether natural or artefactual, as inherently valuable, and therefore as entitled to the respect of moral agents. I offer a defence of this ethical framework and discuss a number of practical applications, including criticism of proposals for the terraforming of Mars. I conclude that terraforming Mars or any other celestial body at this point in our history would be morally wrong. I also suggest that universal ethics provides an ethical foundation for efforts to protect Antarctica, and that it has implications for our relations to other inanimate parts of our world, including artefacts.

[pt] Desde o momento em que Cristóvão Colombo colocou seus pés pela primeira vez nas Américas, o espectro da violência privada no mar esteve por perto, fosse ela empreendida pelas mãos dos próprios espanhóis, fosse por aqueles que disputavam com eles o direito de explorar as riquezas recém-descobertas. Nesta tese argumentamos que os relatos de navegação deixados por corsários, piratas e bucaneiros nos séculos XVII e XVII foram parte fundamental para a criação do imaginário europeu acerca do Novo Mundo e de seus habitantes. Procuramos explorar uma diversidade de relatos que, cada qual à seu modo, representaram os dilemas políticos que vieram a desembocar na criação do Estado e do sujeito político modernos. Este processo, contudo, não foi linear, como em uma escala de progresso em direção à civilidade. Pelo contrário, a leitura dos relatos de navegação nos revela uma experiência diversa e frequentemente contraditória. O escopo desta tese abarca os séculos XVI e XVII. Neste período as instituições sociais herdadas da idade média tardia que ordenaram a relação entre indivíduos e sociedade estavam em franco declínio, processo este que somente se aprofundou com a reimaginação da geografia planetária após os descobrimentos. Argumentamos nesta tese que a figura do pirata foi um ator central nesta reimaginação do mundo a partir de suas margens, de suas áreas limítrofes. Ao longo do trabalho, abordamos os relatos de André Thevet e Jean de Léry, Francis Drake, Anthony Knivet, Alexander Exquemeling e, por fim, o romance Rosbinson Crusoé, de Daniel Defoe. Cada um destes trabalhos trouxe algo de novo para a complexa equação que teve lugar nos dois séculos em questão. / [en] Since when Christopher Columbus first came into the Americas, the specter of private violence stood nearby. This thesis argues that the accounts of navigations left by the privateers, pirates and buccaneers of the XVI and XVII centuries were crucial parts for the making of the European imaginary about the New World, its inhabitants, and the European place in it. We explore the diversity of accounts that, each in its own way, represents the political dilemmas that came to a close at the Modern Estate and the Modern political subjects. This process, thought, should not be represented as an unambiguous tale of progressive civilization. On the contrary, the reading of the accounts of navigation reveals a much more ambiguous and frequently contradictory experience. The scope of this thesis encompass the XVI and XVII centuries. During this time, the late medieval social and political institutions that mediated the relations between society and individuals were at a steady decline. The discoveries made by the Spanish and the Portuguese and the following re-imagination of global geography only aggravated the problem, and from the ashes of the late medieval system modernity arose. We argue that the pirate figure was a central actor in this process acting from the margins. During this thesis we explore the accounts of Andre Thevet and Jean de Léry, Francis drake, Anthony Knivet, Alexander Exquemeling and the novel Robinson Crusoé, from Daniel Defoe. Each one of these accounts brought something new to the complex operations that were taking place in those transitional centuries.

L’architecture crustale et l’évolution de la partie profonde des marges passives peu-magmatiques sont encore mal comprises. En prenant comme chantier principal les marges Australie-Antarctique, cette thèse montre que l’enregistrement de la déformation dans les sédiments met en évidence une évolution polyphasée des marges distales. Cette évolution polyphasée implique le développement de multiples systèmes de détachement présentant une organisation hors-séquence et menant à une architecture finale symétrique des domaines exhumés. Cette organisation des systèmes de failles est liée à des cycles de délocalisation / relocalisation de la déformation influencés par l’apport magmatique, par un niveau de découplage et par la remontée asthénosphérique. L’interaction faille / magma apparait particulièrement importante dans l’évolution des marges distales. Cette étude a permis de mieux caractériser la rupture lithosphérique, qui peut se définir comme un événement tectono-magmatique progressif. / The crustal architecture and evolution of the deepest part of magma-poor rifted margins is currently not well understood. Taking the Australia-Antarctica margins as main study area, this thesis shows that the record of the deformation in sediments highlights a clear polyphase evolution of distal margins. This polyphase evolution implies the development of multiple detachment systems presenting an out-of-sequence organization and leading to a final symmetric architecture of the exhumed domains. This organization of fault systems is linked to cycles of delocalisation / re-localisation of the deformation influenced by the magmatic supply, by a decoupling level and by the asthenospheric uplift. Fault / magma interaction appears particularly important during the evolution of distal margins. This study allowed a better characterization of the lithospheric breakup, which can be defined as a progressive tectono-magmatic event.

La surface de neige sur le Plateau Antarctique joue un rôle important dans l'étude du bilan de masse et d'énergie de surface. Ses caractéristiques dépendent des interactions entre les conditions atmosphériques et le haut du manteau neigeux, à travers notamment les précipitations, la redistribution de neige par le vent et le métamorphisme. L'ensemble des aspects de la surface, i.e. le type de cristaux, la rugosité, la densité, l'albédo …, sont regroupés sous la formule état de surface. L'objectif de cette thèse est l'étude de l'état de surface et de son évolution, en fonction des conditions atmosphériques, à l'aide d'observations in situ et satellite. L'analyse conjointe d'observations in situ, essentiellement à partir de photographies infrarouges de la surface (développement d'un algorithme examinant la texture des images), et satellite, principalement l'émission micro-onde du manteau neigeux (utilisation du rapport de polarisation sensible à la densité proche de la surface), a permis de montrer une dynamique rapide de la surface à Dôme C. En particulier, des périodes où le givre recouvre entièrement la surface sont observées et représentent environ 45% du temps. Cette dynamique est aussi caractérisée par des élévations rapides et importantes de la surface, pouvant être largement supérieures à l'accumulation annuelle moyenne de 8 cm (jusqu'à 20 cm en 2 heures). Le vent est déterminant dans l'évolution de la surface. Plus particulièrement, ces travaux ont montrés l'importance de la direction du vent pour la disparition du givre (perpendiculaire à la direction dominante, i.e. le sud-ouest). Enfin, la corrélation entre présence de givre et rapport de polarisation a permis d'étendre ces résultats sur les 10 années d'observation du satellite et ouvre la voie à la détection des précipitations par télédétection. La modélisation de l'émission micro-onde à 19 et 37 GHz a ensuite été menée à Dôme C à l'aide d'un modèle de transfert radiatif (DMRT-ML). Les propriétés du manteau neigeux (taille des grains, densité et température), utilisées en entrée du modèle, ont été mesurées durant la campagne d'été 2010 - 2011. Les résultats des simulations montrent que la densité de la neige proche de la surface est principalement responsable des variations du rapport de polarisation. Cette densité a ainsi été « inversée » à Dôme C sur 10 ans. Elle montre une tendance pluriannuelle à la baisse de 10 kg m-3 a-1, superposée à un cycle annuel et à des variations journalières / hebdomadaires. La mesure in situ de la densité et l'observation du givre coïncident avec les variations rapides de la densité estimée. L'évolution pluriannuelle conséquente mérite d'être prise en compte pour l'étude du bilan de masse de surface, les causes probables étant une hausse des précipitations ou une baisse de l'intensité du vent. Suivant une méthodologie similaire, l'évolution de la densité de surface a été déduite pour l'ensemble de l'Antarctique. Les variations spatiales mettent en évidence une tendance claire à la diminution de la densité sur une grande région entre Dôme C et Vostok et une région à l'est de Dôme C où elle augmente. À plus grande échelle, le rapport de polarisation moyen montre de grandes variations, signatures de la stratification en densité du manteau neigeux. L'étude de l'altimétrie satellite permettrat de corroborer ces résultats. / The snow surface on the Antarctic Plateau plays an important role to study the surface mass and energy balance. Its characteristics depend on interactions between the atmospheric conditions and the top of the snowpack such as snowfall, snow remobilization by the wind and metamorphism. All the surface characteristics like type of crystals, roughness, density, albedo … are rounded up the expression surface state. Objective of this thesis is to study the surface state and its evolution due to atmospheric conditions, from satellite and in situ observations. Analyzing together in situ and satellite observations, respectively from infrared pictures of the snow surface (developing an algorithm to study the image texture) and microwave emission of snow (using the polarization ratio that principally depends on the snow density near the surface), showed that the surface quickly evolves at Dome C. Specifically, periods where hoar covers totally the surface are observed and represents around 45% of time. Surface evolution is also characterized by rapid and high increase of the surface height which could be widely higher than the mean annual accumulation of 8 cm (to 20 cm in 2 hours). The wind is essential for the snow surface evolution. Especially, these works showed that wind direction changes during the disappearance of hoar crystals (perpendicular to the prevailing direction, i.e. the Southwest). Finally, correlation between presence of hoar on the surface and polarization ratio extended these results for the 10 years of satellite observation. It shows the potential to detect precipitation events from passive microwave observation. Modeling microwave emission at 19 and 37 GHz was performed at Dome C by a radiative transfer model (DMRT-ML). Snowpack properties (grain size, density and temperature) used as model inputs were measured during the 2010 – 2011 summer field campaign. Simulations results showed that the snow density near the surface is mainly responsible of the variations of polarization ratio. Surface density was thus estimated at Dome C for 10 years. The density evolution show a multi-annual trend of 10 kg m-3 a-1 decreasing, superimposed by an annual cycle and daily / weekly variations. In situ measurements of density and hoar observation are coincident with the rapid evolutions of estimated density. The substantial multi-annual decrease of density should be included in surface mass balance study because the causes are probably an increase of precipitation or a decrease of wind speed. Similar method was used to deduce the evolution of the near-surface snow surface for whole Antarctica. Spatial variations bring out a clear decrease trend of surface density over a large area between Dome C and Vostok and an area in the East of Dome C where density increases. For the whole Antarctic, the mean polarization ratio shows large variations which correspond to variations of the density stratification of the snowpack. Spatial altimetry would be useful to confirm these results.

La calotte polaire Antarctique conditionne un flux d’eau douce dans l’océan Austral par deux voies d’égale importance : une injection immédiate et localisée par fonte des plateformes glaciaires, et une injection « offshore » et différée par production (« vêlage ») puis fonte d’icebergs. On estime ainsi que les icebergs, en fondant, pourraient modifier les caractéristiques hydrologiques et biogéochimiques de la colonne d’eau. Les modèles numériques visant à estimer cet impact présentent des résultats contrastés. Ils sont limités dans leurs stratégies de représentations des icebergs, notamment parce que les connaissances sur la distribution spatiale et de taille des icebergs ou encore leurs mécanismes de perte de masse sont réduites. Une méthode récente exploitant des mesures par altimétrie satellitaire a permis la création d’une base de données cartographiant la distribution des icebergs Antarctiques avec une couverture spatiale et temporelle inédite. Notre analyse conjointe entre ces données et des champs de concentration en glace de mer met en lumière le transport d’eau douce injecté par les icebergs et son impact sur la banquise. On analyse également les liens entre icebergs de différentes tailles : les gros peuvent être vus comme des réservoirs de volume de glace, qu’ils diffusent dans tout l’océan en se fragmentant en petits icebergs de différentes tailles. On étudie alors l’évolution de deux icebergs géants, on propose une première paramétrisation du phénomène de fracturation et analyse la distribution de taille résultante. Ces résultats peuvent permettre une représentation plus réaliste du flux d'eau douce conditionné par les icebergs dans les modèles. / The Antarctic polar ice cap constrains a freshwater flaux into the Austral Ocean through two equally important pathways : a localized and immediate injection through the melting of ice-shelves bases, and a delayed offshore injection through the calving and subsequent melt of icebergs. Some studies reckon that melting icebergs have the capacity to alter the hydrological and biogeo-chemical characteristics of the water column. The numerical models trying to evaluate this impact have shown contrasting results. Yet, they might suffer from a poor representation of the icebergs, namely due to our limited knowledge on both the spatial and size distributions of the icebergs, or even the processes involved in their mass loss. A new method using satellite altimetry measurements has lead to the creation of a database mapping Antarctic icebergs distribution with an unprecedented spatial and temporal coverage. Our joint analysis between these data and sea ice concentration fields highlights a possible transport of the freshwater injected by an iceberg and its impacts on sea ice.We also analyze the links between icebergs of different sizes : the large ones can be seen as ice buffers that diffuse across the whole ocean when breaking into small fragments of various sizes. We finally study the evolution of two giant icebergs, suggest the first parametrization of the fragmentation process and analyze the subsequent size distribution of the fragments. These results can be valuable to account in a more realistic way the fresh water flux constrained by icebergs in models.

L'étude du fonctionnement et de la structure des grandes zones de cisaillement, ainsi que de leur évolution dans l'espace et dans le temps est primordiale car elles accommodent la majeure partie de la déformation dans la croûte intermédiaire, la croûte inférieure et également dans le manteau supérieur. La zone de cisaillement du Mertz (MSZ ; longitude 145°Est, Antarctique) s’est révélée être un objet clé pour étudier la localisation de la déformation. La MSZ se situe sur la bordure Est du craton néoarchéen-paléoprotérozoïque de Terre Adélie (TAC) et le sépare d'un domaine granitique Paléozoïque à l'Est. Les études précédentes suggèrent que cette structure décrochante représente la continuité de la zone de cisaillement de Kalinjala (KSZ, Sud de l'Australie) avant l'ouverture de l'océan Austral. Les roches à l'affleurement indiquent que cette structure a été formée dans la croûte intermédiaire en contexte transpressif dextre à 1.7 Ga. La structure de la MSZ a été étudiée depuis l'échelle du terrain jusqu'à l'échelle du micromètre. L'analyse des structures de terrain indique que la déformation paléoprotérozoïque est principalement accommodée par des zones de cisaillement localisées qui sont extrêmement anastomosées au niveau de la MSZ et qui deviennent plus éparses au sein du TAC. Les microstructures et les orientations préférentielles de réseau (OPR) des minéraux (quartz, feldspaths, biotite, amphibole et orthopyroxène) de la MSZ montrent des caractéristiques communes interprétables en terme de conditions, de cinématique et de régime de la déformation qui se distinguent de celles observées dans les boudins tectonique du TAC. Ces derniers montrent, quant à eux, des microstructures et OPR qui révèlent une variété de mécanismes de déformation développés lors de leur formation à 2.5 Ga.L'étude sismologique (fonctions récepteurs et anisotropie des ondes SKS) permet d'apporter de nouvelles données pour la cartographie des structures profondes de la MSZ, du TAC et du domine paléozoïque. Les résultats des fonctions récepteurs indiquent que la croûte est épaisse d'environ 40 à 44 km sous le TAC, 36 km à l'aplomb de la MSZ et 28 km dans le domaine paléozoïque à l'Est. L'analyse de l'anisotropie des ondes SKS suggère que la structuration du manteau sous le craton (ϕ≈N90°E, δt=0,8-1,6s) est différente de celle sous le domaine paléozoïque (ϕ≈N60°E, δt=0,6s). Ainsi, la MSZ constitue la frontière entre ces deux lithosphères ayant des épaisseurs crustales et une structuration du manteau différentes. Enfin, l'étude géochronologique (U-Pb sur zircons et monazites) révèle que le socle du domaine à l'Est de la MSZ présente des âges et une histoire géodynamique différents du TAC. Les âges hérités archéens et paléoprotérozoïques sont similaires à ceux des terrains situés à l'Est de la KSZ au Sud de l'Australie, confirmant ainsi la connexion entre les zones de cisaillement du Mertz et de Kalinjala. De plus, les âges paléozoïques des zircons hérités et métamorphiques et la position géographique des affleurements à l'ouest de la chaîne Transantarctique suggèrent que les échantillons étudiés sont issus d'une marge passive anté-Gondwana formée au sein d'un bassin arrière arc ouvert dans la croûte continentale juste avant la collision de Ross à ≈514-505 Ma.Ainsi, cette étude permet de préciser l'évolution géodynamique à l'Est de la MSZ, et d'apporter de nouveaux éléments pour la connexion avec les terrains du Sud de l'Australie. Par ailleurs, cette thèse souligne l'importance de l'héritage tectonique dans le développement des zones de cisaillement avec, dans le cas de la MSZ, la présence de structures héritées archéennes, ainsi que des processus de localisation de la déformation au sein des lithosphères cratoniques au moins depuis le Paléoprotérozoïque / The study of the behavior and the structure of large shear zones, as well as their evolution in space and times is essential because shear zones accommodate the main deformation in intermediate and deep crust as well as in the mantle.The Mertz shear zone (MSZ; longitude 145°East, Antarctica) is a key target for the study of the deformation localization. The MSZ is located on the eastern boundary of the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic Terre Adélie craton (TAC) and it separates the TAC from a Paleozoic granitic domain to the east. Previous studies suggest that this strike slip structure was probably continuous with the Kalinjala shear zone (KSZ, South Australia) before the opening of the Southern Ocean. Outcrops indicate that the MSZ was formed in the intermediate crust during a transpressive event at 1.7 Ga. The structure of the MSZ was studied from terrain to micrometric scales. The field structural study shows that the Paleoproterozoic deformation is mainly accommodated by localized shear zones that are extremely anastomosed at the MSZ and become more scattered elsewhere in the TAC. Microstructures and crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) of minerals (quartz, feldspaths, biotite, amphibole and orthopyroxene) of the MSZ indicate similar characteristics that can be interpreted in terms of conditions, cinematic and rate of deformation, which are distinct from those of the the tectonic boudins from the TAC. These tectonic boudins reveal microstructures and CPO including a large variety of mechanisms of deformation developed during their formation at 2.5 Ga. The seismological study (receiver functions and SKS-waves anisotropy) permits the characterization of the deep structure on the MSZ area. Receiver functions results show that crustal thickness is about 40 to 44km in the TAC, 36km above the MSZ and 28km in the Paleozoic domain to the east. Analysis of SKS-waves anisotropy suggests that the mantle structures below the craton (ϕ≈N90°E, δt=0,8-1,6s) are different from the ones below the Paleozoic domain (ϕ≈N60°E, δt=0,6s). Thus, the MSZ constitutes the boundary between two lithospheres with distinct crustal thicknesses and mantle structures. The geochronological study (U-Pb dating on zircon and monazite) reveals that the basement of the domain located to the east of the MSZ has a different age and geodynamical story than the TAC. Inherited Archean and Paleoproterozoic ages are similar to those of the terrains located to the east of the KSZ in South Australia that confirms the connection between the Mertz and Kalinjala shear zones. Moreover, the inherited and metamorphic Paleozoic zircon ages as well as the geographic location of the outcrops west of the Transantarctic mountains suggest that studied samples are derived from a pre-Gondwana passive margin formed in a back-arc basin opened in the continental crust just before the Ross orogeny at ≈514-505Ma.This multi-scale approach thus permits precise the geodynamic evolution of the region located east of the MSZ and provide new elements for Australia-Antarctica connection. Moreover, this thesis highlights the importance of tectonic inheritance in the development of shear zones (with the presence of archean inherited structures in the case of the MSZ), as well as localization processes in cratonic lithospheres from at least the Paleoproterozoic times

VILLELA, FRANCO N. J. Análise decadal do fluxo de CO2 entre o oceano e a atmosfera na passagem de Drake, Oceano Austral. 2011. 148 f. Dissertação (mestrado) Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência Ambiental (PROCAM), Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 2011. Para a área delimitada pelos paralelos 60ºS e 62,5ºS e pelos meridianos 60ºW e 65ºW, localizada no sul da Passagem de Drake, no Oceano Austral, próximo à Península Antártica, foram calculadas as distribuições médias de 2000 a 2009, sazonais e anual, do fluxo de CO2 na interface oceano-atmosfera e de suas variáveis associadas: a pressão parcial de CO2 na superfície marinha (PCO2sw), a pressão parcial de CO2 na atmosfera (PCO2ar), a diferença da pressão parcial de CO2 entre o oceano e a atmosfera (PCO2) e a taxa de transferência gasosa (TR), que é produto do coeficiente solubilidade do CO2 na água do mar pela velocidade de transferência gasosa. A parametrização utilizada no cálculo dos fluxos foi a de Takahashi et al. (2009) com TR dependente da velocidade do vento ao quadrado multiplicada por um fator de escala 0,26. A área de estudo tem cerca de 75 mil km2 e foi dividida em uma grade espacial de 0,5º x 0,5º, resultando em 50 quadrículas. Foram utilizados mais de 46 mil medições de PCO2sw, que na média espacial variou de 362,7 ±11,2 a 371,9 ±17,5 µatm, no verão e primavera respectivamente. A PCO2 variou de -0,4 a 5,7 µatm no outono e primavera, respectivamente. A TR variou de 0,065 ±0,04 a 0,088 ±0,002 gC.mês-1.m-2.µatm-1, no verão e inverno, respectivamente. O fluxo líquido, se tomando a concentração de gelo como negligenciável, variou de -0,039 ±0,865 a 0,456 ±1,221 gC.m-2.mês-1, no outono e inverno, respectivamente. O fluxo total anual de carbono, estimado através da média espacial por quadrícula, foi de 95 GgC.ano-1. Dessa maneira, na estimativa anual, a superfície do mar se comporta como fonte de CO2 para a atmosfera, principalmente devido à região da plataforma continental com PCO2sw consideravelmente maior que o da atmosfera. Sazonalmente sugere-se que no verão a maior disponibilidade de radiação solar, a temperatura da superfície do mar (TSM) mais elevada e os ventos mais fracos favorecem a produção de biomassa fitoplanctônica, fazendo com que a bomba biológica seja o processo dominante na diminuição da PCO2sw e na absorção de CO2 atmosférico pela superfície marinha. Já no inverno, os ventos se intensificam e, associados com o forte resfriamento da TSM, promovem a mistura com águas profundas ricas em carbono inorgânico dissolvido, levando a superfície marinha a um estado de supersaturação de CO2 em relação à atmosfera. Ventos circumpolares de oeste mais intensos e deslocados para sul tem sido apontados como a causa do aumento da PCO2sw em igual ou maior taxa do que ocorre na atmosfera. Na área de estudo foi levantada uma tendência média da intensidade do vento de 0,23 ±0,03 m.s-1.década-1 e um aumento na freqüência da componente zonal de oeste (positiva) de 1,47 ± 1,13 % .década-1. Sugere-se que estas tendências estejam relacionadas com o Modo Anular Austral (SAM). Entretanto, a tendência decadal estimada para a PCO2sw foi menor que para a atmosfera, apesar de ambas indicarem tendência de aumento. Acredita-se que a grande variabilidade e distribuição esparsa de dados tenham mascarado a magnitude da estimativa da tendência de PCO2sw. / VILLELA, FRANCO N. J. Decadal analysis of the CO2 sea-air flux in the Drake Passage, Southern Ocean 2011. 148 f. Dissertação (mestrado) Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência Ambiental (PROCAM), Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 2011. For the area bounded by parallels 60°S and 62.5°S and meridians 60°W and 65°W, located in the southern Drake Passage in the Southern Ocean, near the Antarctic Peninsula, mean seasonal and annual distributions of CO2 flux at the ocean-atmosphere interface, from 2000 to 2009, have been computed, as well as their associated variables: the CO2 partial pressure at sea surface (PCO2sw), the CO2 partial pressure in atmosphere (PCO2ar), the CO2 pressure difference between ocean and atmosphere (PCO2), and the gas transfer rate (TR), which is the product of the CO2 solubility coefficient in sea water by the gas transfer velocity. The parameterization used to calculate fluxes was that of Takahashi et al. (2009) with TR depending on the squared wind speed multiplied by a scale factor 0.26. The study area has about 75,000 km2 and was divided into a grid of 0.5° x 0.5°, resulting in 50 area boxes. Over 46,000 PCO2sw measurements were used, which in the spatial mean varied from 362.7±11.2 to 371.9±17.5 µatm, in summer and spring, respectively. The PCO2 varied from 0.4 to 5.7 µatm in autumn and spring, respectively. TR varied from 0.065±0.04 to 0,088±0.002 gC.month-1.m-2.µatm-1, in summer and winter, respectively. The net flux, taking ice concentration as negligible, varied from 0.039±0.865 to 0.456±1.221 gC.month-1.m-2, in autumn and winter, respectively. The total annual carbon flux, estimated through the spatial mean per square, was 95 GgC.y-1. Thus, in the annual estimate the region acts as a source to the atmosphere, mainly due to the continental shelf having PCO2sw considerably greater than that of the atmosphere. Seasonally, it is suggested that in summer the greater availability of solar radiation, warmer sea surface temperature (SST), and weaker winds favor the production of phytoplanktonic mass, making the biological pump the dominating process in lowering the PCO2sw and the absorption of atmospheric CO2 by the sea surface. On the other hand, in winter winds intensify and, in association with the strong cooling of the SST, promote mixing with deep waters rich in dissolved inorganic carbon, leading the sea surface to a state of supersaturation in CO2 relative to the atmosphere. Stronger circumpolar west winds and displaced to the south have been pointed as the cause for the increase of PCO2sw at a rate equal to or greater than that occurring in the atmosphere. In the study area it has been detected a mean trend of wind intensity 0.23±0.03 m.s-1.decade-1 and an increase in the western zonal component of 1.47±1.3%.decade-1. It is suggested that these trends are related to the Southern Annular Mode (SAM). However, the decadal trend estimated for the PCO2sw was smaller than for the atmosphere, in spite of both indicating increasing tendencies. It is believed that the great variability and scatter distribution of the data have masked the magnitude of the PCO2SW trend estimate.

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Objectivity and neutrality of current makers of online maps is hampered by the fact that the most important of them who form the public opinion are largely commercial giants. Sensitivity of approaches is desirable especially in specific situations involving territorial disputes. The textual part of the thesis brings theoretical insights to the problematics of map makers policies and their preservation or violation. At the same time is describes critical cartography as a current opposition against governmental and cooperative mapping, of which counter-mapping processes are regularly used in art, too. Practical outcome attempts to reflect specific approaches of map makers depending on particular territorial disputes. It takes place mostly in online environment, using the functions of Google Street View or Google Earth and forms of counter-mapping on the OSM platform. The goal is to bring alternative realities complicating map makers policies and governing apparatus to map projects with the international coverage.

Currently, the South Pole has a large data problem. It is estimated that 1.2 TB of data is being produced every day, but less than 500 GB of that data is being uploaded via aging satellites to researchers in other parts of the world. This requires those at the South Pole to analyze the data and carefully select the parts to send, possibly missing out on vital scientific information. The South Pole Carrier Pigeon will look to bridge this data gap. The Carrier Pigeon will be a small unmanned aerial vehicle that will carry a 30 TB solid-state hard drive from the South Pole to various destinations in the Southern Hemisphere, but it has been designed to y to Christchurch, New Zealand. This 87 lb. UAV will be able to y 3,650 nmi. up to 25,000 ft., using a 5.7 hp. engine. It will feature an de-icing system on the leading edge of its 8 ft. span wing to allow it to y through cold, moist climates. It will have a 39 in. long fuselage with a tail boom of 33 in. The aircraft has been designed to be made out of composites, thus reducing both the weight of the aircraft as well as its drag. It has been designed to come apart in order to be shipped successfully to the South Pole. There, it will be assembled and launched via a custom pneumatic launcher. It will y autonomously to 15,000 ft. and cruise climb throughout the flight to 25,000 ft., before descending to its destination. There, it will be caught by a net restraint system, where the hard drive will be extracted. The Carrier Pigeon is truly a unique vehicle for its size, range, and robustness.