Este trabalho tem como objetivo proceder ao exame da análise realizada por Averróis a respeito da natureza do intelecto material. Nosso autor procura demonstrar a certa incompletude presente nas teses lançadas a esse respeito, principalmente por Themístio e Alexandre de Afrodísia, e solucionar as antinomias que envolvem a afirmação de que o intelecto material é uma substância separada e única para toda a humanidade. As principais questões decorrentes dessa afirmação envolvem principalmente o processo de formação dos inteligíveis; a possibilidade do conhecimento individual; a relação que é estabelecida entre o homem e o intelecto; e, sobretudo, a natureza do intelecto material. Fruto de grande controvérsia, a tese da unidade do intelecto material possui grande importância no pensamento de Averróis, pois o estabelecimento dessa natureza representa a solução de diversas questões no âmbito da metafísica. Os reflexos dessa questão chegam até mesmo ao âmbito moral de sua filosofia, onde é estabelecido que o movimento natural do homem se dê por meio da relação com essa substância separada e tem seu fim exatamente aí, onde o terreno da absoluta felicidade só é alcançado nessa relação entre homem e intelecto. / The objectiveof this work is to proceed the examination of the analysis carried through Averroes regarding the nature of the material intellect. The author aims to demonstrate certain incompleteness presented in some thesis about it, mainly those of Themístius and Alexander of Aphrodisias, and to solve the antinomies wich involves the affirmation of that the material intellect as a separate and a single substance for all humankind. This affirmation rises many questions, mainly the formation process of the intelligible; the possibility of the individual knowledge; the relation established between man and intellect; and, over all, the nature of the material intellect. Originated among great controversy, the thesis for the unit of the material intellect has great importance in the thought of Averroes, therefore the establishment of this nature represents the solution of many questions in the scope of metaphysics. The consequences of this question arrive even though at the moral ground of its philosophy, where it is established that the natural movement of the man happens trought the relation with this separate substance and has its end precisely there, where the land of the absolute happiness is reached only by this relation between man and intellect.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo proceder ao exame da análise realizada por Averróis a respeito da natureza do intelecto material. Nosso autor procura demonstrar a certa incompletude presente nas teses lançadas a esse respeito, principalmente por Themístio e Alexandre de Afrodísia, e solucionar as antinomias que envolvem a afirmação de que o intelecto material é uma substância separada e única para toda a humanidade. As principais questões decorrentes dessa afirmação envolvem principalmente o processo de formação dos inteligíveis; a possibilidade do conhecimento individual; a relação que é estabelecida entre o homem e o intelecto; e, sobretudo, a natureza do intelecto material. Fruto de grande controvérsia, a tese da unidade do intelecto material possui grande importância no pensamento de Averróis, pois o estabelecimento dessa natureza representa a solução de diversas questões no âmbito da metafísica. Os reflexos dessa questão chegam até mesmo ao âmbito moral de sua filosofia, onde é estabelecido que o movimento natural do homem se dê por meio da relação com essa substância separada e tem seu fim exatamente aí, onde o terreno da absoluta felicidade só é alcançado nessa relação entre homem e intelecto. / The objectiveof this work is to proceed the examination of the analysis carried through Averroes regarding the nature of the material intellect. The author aims to demonstrate certain incompleteness presented in some thesis about it, mainly those of Themístius and Alexander of Aphrodisias, and to solve the antinomies wich involves the affirmation of that the material intellect as a separate and a single substance for all humankind. This affirmation rises many questions, mainly the formation process of the intelligible; the possibility of the individual knowledge; the relation established between man and intellect; and, over all, the nature of the material intellect. Originated among great controversy, the thesis for the unit of the material intellect has great importance in the thought of Averroes, therefore the establishment of this nature represents the solution of many questions in the scope of metaphysics. The consequences of this question arrive even though at the moral ground of its philosophy, where it is established that the natural movement of the man happens trought the relation with this separate substance and has its end precisely there, where the land of the absolute happiness is reached only by this relation between man and intellect.

In this thesis, I explore the epistemological dimensions in the political thought of Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 1111), a renowned Muslim theologian and philosopher, famous for the refutation of the peripatetic tradition by means of a thoroughgoing skepticism. His reflections on human understanding and the cognitive faculties led him to the following conclusion: since reason is not self-sufficient, humanity must abide by revealed laws. While al-Ghazālī maintains that strict obedience is necessary for certain commoners, he arrives at such theocratic conclusions by way of investigating human nature as well as metaphysical claims. In brief, al-Ghazālī’s claim that humans must abide by revelation is grounded on two interrelated themes which are prevalent across his texts: (1) his view that God’s power over the universe is unlimited and (2) his claim that humans are entirely feeble before His omnipotence. In this sense, al-Ghazālī’s theology stands out as a negative philosophy; it is his use of philosophy that eventually undercuts independent philosophy, thus demanding that all persons submit to a higher source of truth, God’s revelation. Alternatively, al-Ghazālī proposes a mystical doctrine to address humanity’s perceptive shortcomings, claiming that the ascetic experience is the best means to attaining knowledge of the divine. I argue that, by pursuing a systemic inquiry into the nature of creation, which leads up to this mysticism, al-Ghazālī occasionally elevates reason to the ranks of revelation. This is because he arrives at this conclusion not by way of revelation, but through independent philosophical reflection and inquiry, one that makes use of particular theological notions. His skeptical refutation of certain philosophical doctrines is followed by his mysticism. In the later stages of my thesis, I extrapolate from this study to make larger claims about the nature of theocratic regimes. In the final analysis, I re-examine his theological and philosophical concepts to demonstrate how they are transposed to his political thought. I argue that al-Ghazālī’s key theological notions strongly shape his main political writings, though he tones down the philosophical and mystical jargon. While addressing the rulers, al-Ghazālī hopes that they could adopt the humility of the ideal ascetic man he has in mind. In brief, al-Ghazālī articulates a politics of humility to warn against tyrannical practice by appealing to the importance of the heart. Lastly, though this thesis deals with al-Ghazālī’s theological corpus, I also contribute to the literature on reason and revelation. I demonstrate that the theological may also contain reason at its foundation, especially when appealing to universal questions about humanity’s welfare.

Orientador: Francisco Benjamin de Souza Netto / Tese não autorizada para disponibilização na Internet / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-01T15:19:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Pereira_ RosalieHelenaDeSouza_D.pdf: 3595627 bytes, checksum: b670287f49cf2c8c70f66e7ffb3307df (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: Nossa tese apresenta um ângulo da leitura aristotélica que, no Comentário sobre A República, Averróis faz dessa obra de Platão. Nessa leitura evidencia-se a transformação do filósofo-rei platônico no phrónimos aristotélico. Nossa interpretação se baseia na versão latina dessa obra de Averróis, realizada no século XV por Elia del Medigo. No Livro II desse tratado, há uma passagem em que é dito que o soberano deve ser "sábio segundo a ciência prática e, com isso, ter o mérito da virtude cogitativa". Distinguem-se, nessa frase, a ética de Aristóteles como ciência prática e a virtude cogitativa (phrónesis), essencial para o desempenho virtuoso do soberano. Isso corrobora o que Averróis afirma no Comentário Médio à Ética Nicomaquéia: "a prudência e a arte de governar as cidades são um único campo de investigação (subiecto)". Desse modo, a arte de governar tem dois lados, o teórico e o prático, ou seja, a ética e a política. Depois de apresentarmos a primeira parte, essencial para a contextualização histórica da obra, nossa análise se debruça sobre um estudo da "virtude cogitativa" e a identifica com a prudência ou sabedoria prática, a phrónesis aristotélica. Em razão da metodologia adotada por Averróis e das críticas que ele tece à sociedade de seu tempo, esse tratado configura-se mais como uma obra original que propriamente um comentário nos moldes tradicionais de seus comentários à obra de Aristóteles / Abstract: Our thesis presents a view of the Aristotelic reading which in the Comentary on the Republic Averroes forms of this work by Plato. In this reading the transformation of the Platonic philosopherking into the Aristotelian phrónimos becomes evident. Our interpretation is based on the Latin version of this work by Averroes, accomplished in the XVth century by Elia del Medigo. In Book II of this treatise, there is a passage in which he says that the sovereign should be "wise according to practical science, and with this, have the merit of cogitative virtue". We note, in this phrase, Aristotle¿s ethics as practical science and the cogitative virtue (phrónesis) which is essential for the sovereign¿s virtuous fulfillment. This corroborates what Averroes affirms in the Middle Commentary on Aristotle¿s Nicomachea that "prudence and the art of governing cities are a unique area of investigation (subiecto)". Thus, the art of governing has two sides, the theoretical and the practical, or, the ethical and the political. After presenting the first part, essential for the historical contextualization of the work, our analysis covers the study of "cogitative virtue", and identifies it with prudence or practical knowledge, the Aristotelian phrónesis. By reason of the methodology adopted by Averroes, and of the crititiques that he makes about the society of his time, this treatise is shaped more like an original work than a commentary on the traditional examples of his commentaries on Aristotelic works / Doutorado / Filosofia / Doutor em Filosofia

The focus of the thesis is an explanation of specifics of Ibn Bâjja's political philosophy as it is presented in his most famous writing The Governance of the Solitary (Tadbír al-mutawahhid). The thesis should introduce how is Ibn Bâjja's thinking based on work of ancient authors and what are its foundations. This is the reason why it will be necessary to look into al-Fārābī and his political philosophy, however, it will be also important to see how much is Ibn Bâjja's work influenced by thinking of Plato's and Aristotle's politically oriented writings. Despite the historical aspect of the thesis, it will be crucial to show possible parallels to contemporary political thinking and the status of philosopher/intellectual in society. A part of the thesis is also Czech translation of the first chapter of The Governance of the Solitary focusing on two fundamental concepts of Ibn Bâjja's philosophy - "governance" and "solitary".

Figura-chave da chamada \"Escola de Isfahān\", Mullā Ṣadrā (979 H. / 1571-2 d.C ) ocupou papel de destaque durante a renascença safávida do reinado de Abbās I (d. 1039/1629). Acredita-se ter sido ele o principal responsável por revitalizar a filosofia da iluminação de Sūhrawardi naquele contexto, além de consolidar a junção entre sufismo e neoplatonismo. Foi responsável, ainda, pela elaboração de metodologia própria para a compreensão da realidade, tendo por base fontes filosóficas, teológicas e místicas, além de mesclar raciocínio lógico, inspiração espiritual e meditação profunda. Ṣadrā aplicou tal metodologia às principais obras da tradição xiita duodécima. Do ponto de vista filosófico, Ṣadrā percebe o conceito aristotélico de \"substância\" como processo, em constante mudança; nesse aspecto, o filósofo aproxima-se da leitura de traço neoplatônico, já presente em al-Fārābī e Ibn Sīn&#257. O modo como Ṣadrā relaciona as noções de \"essência\" e \"existência\" deu novas feições à discussão metafísica de tradição árabe-islâmica. Em sua doutrina, Ṣadrā acaba por transformar a metafísica construída a partir da primazia das substâncias, como elemento primordial da existência, em outra, fundada e movida por atos de existência. Apesar de perpassar esses e outros temas, a principal contribuição d\'O Elixir dos Gnósticos diz respeito à ênfase do autor no autoconhecimento. Como Ibn Ἁrab&#299, Ṣadrā acredita que o conhecimento da alma / nafs - ou seja, o conhecimento de si mesmo - e o conhecimento de Deus estão interligados. Por esse motivo, o presente trabalho se preocupou principalmente em analisar a relação entre os existentes, a alma e a inteligência primeira, pois é a partir dessa relação que se tornar possível vislumbrar e compreender as questões fundamentais da origem e do retorno à fonte doadora de existência. Do ponto de vista histórico, vale destacar que à fundação do império safávida acompanhou-se a conversão em massa da população ao xiismo. Para responder à demanda por instrução da multidão de novos convertidos - e igualmente firmar as bases da nova religião oficial -, grande número de religiosos foi trazido de áreas xiitas respeitadas pela doutrina e pela ortodoxia, tais como Líbano e Iraque. Esse clero árabe recém chegado, que teve Ṣadrā como herdeiro, foi responsável por incorporar novos elementos ao pensamento religioso vigente em terras persas e, assim, conformar ambiente propício para o desenvolvimento do pensamento filosófico de Ṣadrā. / Prominent figure of the \"Isfahān School\", Mullā Ṣadrā (979 H. / 1571-2 AD) had an important role during the Safavid renaissance in the reign of Abbās I (d. 1039/1629). He is believed to be the main responsible for the revitalization of the philosophy of illumination of Sūhrawardi in that context, as well as for the consolidation of the junction between Sufism and Neoplatonism. He also developed his own methodology for the comprehension of the reality, based on philosophical, theological and mystics\' sources, and which puts together logical reasoning, spiritual inspiration and deep meditation. Ṣadrā applied his methodology to the then major works of the Twelver Shi\'ism tradition. From the philosophical point of view Ṣadrā perceives the Aristotelian concept of \"substance\" as a process in constant change; in this regard the philosopher comes nearer to the Neoplatonic ideas instead, as did al-Fārābī and Ibn Sīn&#257. The way Ṣadrā relates the notion of \"essence\" and \"existence\" added new features to the metaphysical discussions in Arabic and Islamic philosophical tradition. In his doctrine, Ṣadrā ends up transforming the metaphysics built upon the primacy of substances as the primordial element of existence, in another one based on and moved by acts of existence. The most important contribution of The Elixir of the Gnostics however is the emphasis of the author on self-knowledge. As Ibn Ἁrab&#299, Ṣadrā believes that the knowledge of the soul / nafs - in other words, the knowledge of the self - and the knowledge of God are interconnected. For this reason the present work is more concerned in analyzing the relation between existents, soul, and the first intelligence, from which it is possible to comprehend the fundamental issues of the origin and the return to the donor source of existence. From the historical point of view, it is worthy to highlight that the establishment of the Safavid Empire resulted in the mass conversion of the Persians into Shi\'ism. In order to respond to the increasing demand for religious instruction - and also to stabilize the basis for the new official religion - a great number of clerics was brought from Shiite areas recognized for their doctrine and orthodoxy, such as Lebanon and Iraq. This newcomer Arab clergy was responsible for incorporating new elements to the existing religious thought in Persian lands, and for creating a propitious context for the development of Ṣadrā\'s philosophical thought.

Les Épîtres des Frères en Pureté forment une encyclopédie des sciences philosophiques (au sens hégélien) composée par Aḥmad b. aṭ-Ṭayyib as-Saraḫsī vers 280/894 à partir des travaux effectués par les Frères en Pureté, héritage du « cercle d’al-Kindī ». Le système trouve ses fondations dans l’arithmétique de Nicomaque de Gérase, est composé de la science kindienne, et s’élève sur les préoccupations politiques d’al-Ǧāḥiẓ, mais réalise une construction philosophique originale. Historiquement, une fois démontrée l’unicité du rédacteur, établi qu’Abū Ḥātim puise sa réfutation d’Abū Bakr ar-Rāzī dans la doctrine rasaélienne de l’héritage scientifique des prophètes, compris que les Rasāʾil sont alimentées par le kindisme, repéré que le seul héritier d’al-Kindī apte à cette entreprise est as-Saraḫsī, la comparaison des fragments saraḫsiens avec les épîtres révèle l’identité de style et de doctrine. L’identification de surcroît d’as-Saraḫsī au réviseur de l’Introduction arithmétique de Nicomaque autorise à postuler un système philosophique fondé mathématiquement. Préoccupées par le problème ontologique de la diversité du réel sous l’unité du Créateur, par le problème épistémologique de la divergence des méthodes et des doctrines scientifiques et religieuses malgré l’unité de la vérité et par le problème politique de la discorde malgré l’interdépendance des hommes, les Rasāʾil Iḫwān aṣ-Ṣafā entreprennent d’unifier la multiplicité empirique des êtres, de coordonner les savoirs et de réconcilier les hommes en une communauté vertueuse au moyen de trois concepts mathématiques : par leur origine dans l’émanation des êtres à partir du Créateur exprimée par la suite arithmétique, dans leur structure par la compréhension des analogies et des puissances entre les choses que révèle le rapport harmonique, et dans leur finalité au moyen de l’abstraction géométrique des formes hors de la matière constituée en modèle initiatique des âmes à la séparation d’avec le corps. / The Epistles of Brethren in Purity are an encyclopedia of philosophical sciences (in the Hegelian meaning) and were composed by Aḥmad b. aṭ-Ṭayyib as-Saraḫsī around 280/894. They are based on the work of the Brethren in Purity, which are the social inheritance of the “circle of al-Kindī.” The system itself is based on the arithmetic works of Nicomaque of Gerase. It is full of kindian science and erected on al-Ǧāḥiẓ political concerns. But as-Saraḫsī builds a very particular philosophical object. At the historical level, once we determine that the author is unique, that his views on the scientific heritage of the prophets is largely used by Abū Ḥātim ar-Rāzī to dispute with Abū Bakr, that the epistles are full of kindian elements, that the only al-Kindī’s student able to write such a book is Aḥmad b. aṭ-Ṭayyib as-Saraḫsī, we can compare the text with his fragments and reveal that they both share a particular style and philosophical ideas. So, because as-Saraḫsī is also the corrector of Nicomaque’s Introduction on Arithmetics, we can assume that he gives great importance to mathematics and base his system on it. The Epistles are focused on the ontological problem of the diversity of reality under the reign of the Creator’s unity, on the epistemological problem of contrariety of sciences and religions in methods and beliefs, and on the political problem of adversity of men in spite common interdependence. So they unify the effective multiplicity of beings, order the different disciplines of knowledge and build human reconciliation in the virtuous city, thanks to three mathematical concepts: they rewrite the emanation of beings from the Creator’s spring with the arithmetical sequence, they unify the actual structure of the world with the harmonic relation that rationalizes the different analogies and the mutual powers of their parts, and they educate the soul to its spiritual end with the geometric abstraction of forms from the material.

Figura-chave da chamada \"Escola de Isfahān\", Mullā Ṣadrā (979 H. / 1571-2 d.C ) ocupou papel de destaque durante a renascença safávida do reinado de Abbās I (d. 1039/1629). Acredita-se ter sido ele o principal responsável por revitalizar a filosofia da iluminação de Sūhrawardi naquele contexto, além de consolidar a junção entre sufismo e neoplatonismo. Foi responsável, ainda, pela elaboração de metodologia própria para a compreensão da realidade, tendo por base fontes filosóficas, teológicas e místicas, além de mesclar raciocínio lógico, inspiração espiritual e meditação profunda. Ṣadrā aplicou tal metodologia às principais obras da tradição xiita duodécima. Do ponto de vista filosófico, Ṣadrā percebe o conceito aristotélico de \"substância\" como processo, em constante mudança; nesse aspecto, o filósofo aproxima-se da leitura de traço neoplatônico, já presente em al-Fārābī e Ibn Sīn&#257. O modo como Ṣadrā relaciona as noções de \"essência\" e \"existência\" deu novas feições à discussão metafísica de tradição árabe-islâmica. Em sua doutrina, Ṣadrā acaba por transformar a metafísica construída a partir da primazia das substâncias, como elemento primordial da existência, em outra, fundada e movida por atos de existência. Apesar de perpassar esses e outros temas, a principal contribuição d\'O Elixir dos Gnósticos diz respeito à ênfase do autor no autoconhecimento. Como Ibn Ἁrab&#299, Ṣadrā acredita que o conhecimento da alma / nafs - ou seja, o conhecimento de si mesmo - e o conhecimento de Deus estão interligados. Por esse motivo, o presente trabalho se preocupou principalmente em analisar a relação entre os existentes, a alma e a inteligência primeira, pois é a partir dessa relação que se tornar possível vislumbrar e compreender as questões fundamentais da origem e do retorno à fonte doadora de existência. Do ponto de vista histórico, vale destacar que à fundação do império safávida acompanhou-se a conversão em massa da população ao xiismo. Para responder à demanda por instrução da multidão de novos convertidos - e igualmente firmar as bases da nova religião oficial -, grande número de religiosos foi trazido de áreas xiitas respeitadas pela doutrina e pela ortodoxia, tais como Líbano e Iraque. Esse clero árabe recém chegado, que teve Ṣadrā como herdeiro, foi responsável por incorporar novos elementos ao pensamento religioso vigente em terras persas e, assim, conformar ambiente propício para o desenvolvimento do pensamento filosófico de Ṣadrā. / Prominent figure of the \"Isfahān School\", Mullā Ṣadrā (979 H. / 1571-2 AD) had an important role during the Safavid renaissance in the reign of Abbās I (d. 1039/1629). He is believed to be the main responsible for the revitalization of the philosophy of illumination of Sūhrawardi in that context, as well as for the consolidation of the junction between Sufism and Neoplatonism. He also developed his own methodology for the comprehension of the reality, based on philosophical, theological and mystics\' sources, and which puts together logical reasoning, spiritual inspiration and deep meditation. Ṣadrā applied his methodology to the then major works of the Twelver Shi\'ism tradition. From the philosophical point of view Ṣadrā perceives the Aristotelian concept of \"substance\" as a process in constant change; in this regard the philosopher comes nearer to the Neoplatonic ideas instead, as did al-Fārābī and Ibn Sīn&#257. The way Ṣadrā relates the notion of \"essence\" and \"existence\" added new features to the metaphysical discussions in Arabic and Islamic philosophical tradition. In his doctrine, Ṣadrā ends up transforming the metaphysics built upon the primacy of substances as the primordial element of existence, in another one based on and moved by acts of existence. The most important contribution of The Elixir of the Gnostics however is the emphasis of the author on self-knowledge. As Ibn Ἁrab&#299, Ṣadrā believes that the knowledge of the soul / nafs - in other words, the knowledge of the self - and the knowledge of God are interconnected. For this reason the present work is more concerned in analyzing the relation between existents, soul, and the first intelligence, from which it is possible to comprehend the fundamental issues of the origin and the return to the donor source of existence. From the historical point of view, it is worthy to highlight that the establishment of the Safavid Empire resulted in the mass conversion of the Persians into Shi\'ism. In order to respond to the increasing demand for religious instruction - and also to stabilize the basis for the new official religion - a great number of clerics was brought from Shiite areas recognized for their doctrine and orthodoxy, such as Lebanon and Iraq. This newcomer Arab clergy was responsible for incorporating new elements to the existing religious thought in Persian lands, and for creating a propitious context for the development of Ṣadrā\'s philosophical thought.