As interações entre presas e predadores possuem um papel fundamental na evolução das espécies. Para as presas em particular, uma falha na interação com um predador pode representar a morte e, consequentemente, os genes desta presa provavelmente não estariam representados em gerações futuras. Devido à essa forte pressão seletiva imposta pelos predadores, as presas evoluíram diversas estratégias defensivas. As defesas podem atuar dificultando que os predadores detectem a presas (e.g. anacorese e a cripsia) ou após os predadores estarem muito próximos ou mesmo terem atacado às presas. Tais defesas incluem a retaliação (tanto mecânica como química) e o comportamento de tanatose. Todas estas defesas mencionadas anteriormente foram propostas para opiliões. Portanto, opiliões são potencialmente bons modelos para estudar a evolução das estratégias defensivas. Nesta tese, adotamos o opilião Mischonyx cuspidatus como modelo experimental. No capítulo 1, testamos se M. cuspidatus são consistentes nos níveis de ousadia (propensão em se exporem ao risco, medido neste trabalho pelo tempo em tanatose e em freezing) e se a ousadia é influenciada pelo jejum. Encontramos que a ousadia é consistente, mas não detectamos efeitos do jejum. No capítulo 2, testamos se existem diferenças sexuais nas defesas de M. cuspidatus. Considerando o dimorfismo sexual presente nesses animais (machos possuem estruturas pontiagudas no último par de pernas que são utilizadas retaliação, mas as fêmeas não), testamos as seguintes predições i) machos dependeriam mais de defesas mecânicas do que fêmeas e ii) fêmeas dependeriam de outras formas de defesa, como defesas químicas e defesas passivas. Encontramos que os machos respondem com retaliação mecânica mais frequentemente do que as fêmeas e as fêmeas realizam tanatose mais frequentemente do que os machos. Não encontramos diferenças na frequência de uso de defesas químicas. No capítulo 3, testamos se há diferenças entre os períodos diurno e noturno na realização do 466 comportamento de tanatose em fêmeas de M. cuspidatus. Prevemos que as fêmeas realizariam tanatose mais frequentemente durante o dia. Assim, poderiam potencialmente evitar que fossem detectadas por predadores visuais. Conforme esperado, encontramos que fêmeas realizam tanatose mais frequentemente durante o dia do que à noite. Os resultados que obtivemos nesta tese contribuem para o conhecimento da evolução das estratégias defensivas, bem como fornece resultados que podem ser um passo inicial para o entendimento da consistência comportamental em opiliões e suas implicações para este táxon / Prey-predator interactions play a major role in species evolution. Failing in an interaction with a predator may represent death for prey. Consequently, prey´s genes would not be represented in the future generations. In response to the strong selective pressures imposed by predators, prey have evolved several defensive strategies. Prey defenses may hinder detection by predators (e.g. anachoresis and crypsis). Other defensive strategies may play a role after predators are in close-range or already attacked the prey, for example retaliation (both mechanical and chemical) and thanatosis. All the aforementioned defenses have been described to harvestmen. Thus, harvestmen are potentially good models to study the evolution of defensive strategies. In this thesis, we used the harvestman Mischonyx cuspidatus as our experimental model. In the first chapter, we tested if individuals of M. cuspidatus are consistent in boldness levels (propensity to take risks, herein measured by the time spent performing thanatosis and freezing). We also tested if boldness is influenced by starvation. We found that M. cuspidatus behaved consistently regarding boldness, but we did not find any effect of starvation. In the second chapter, we looked for sexual differences in defensive behavior of M. cuspidatus. Taking into account the sexually dimorphic characters of this species (males have sharp structures in the fourth pair of legs, but females do not) we tested the following predictions i) males would rely more upon mechanical defenses than females and ii) females would rely more on other kinds of defenses, such as chemical and passive defenses than males. We found that males performed mechanical retaliation more often than females and females performed thanatosis more often than males. We did not find any sexual difference with respect to chemical defense. In the third chapter we tested if there are differences in the frequency of thanatosis performed by females of M. cuspidatus between the periods of night and day. By performing thanatosis more often during the day, females of M. cuspidatus might be able to avoid being detected by visual predators. As expected, females performed thanatosis more often during the day than at night. Taken together, our results contribute to the understanding of the evolution of defensive strategies, as well as provide results that might be a first step to address new questions about behavioral consistency in harvestmen and their implications in this group

Vita. / Digitized by Kansas Correctional Industries

L’agroforesterie, et plus particulièrement les systèmes sylvo-arables, sont des systèmes peu étudiés qui présentent des intérêts agronomiques et environnementaux en systèmes tempérés. Les systèmes agroforestiers pourraient notamment fournir un microclimat favorable aux cultures maraîchères conduites en agriculture biologique en contexte pédoclimatique méditerranéen. Cependant, il existe encore peu de références scientifiques sur le sujet, et l’issue des interactions entre arbres et cultures sont encore me connues. En particulier, le microclimat généré par des arbres âgés est susceptible de modifier les relations entre cultures, bio agresseurs et pré dateurs généralistes, qui peuvent conditionner la performance d’une association agroforestière. Cette thèse avait donc comme objectifs :➢ D’évaluer l’impact de l’ouverture de la canopée sur la biodiversité et l’activité densite des coléoptères carabiques.➢ D’identifier comment le microclimat peut influencer les processus de régulation naturelle.Les systèmes agroforestiers se développent sur des temps longs (pluriannuels): l’étude s’est focalisée sur un système ayant déjà des arbres âgés de 20 ans pour en étudier l’impact sur le microclimat et la faune du sol. Pour faire varier ce microclimat, un gradient d’ouverture de la canopée a été réalisé. La température de l’air ambiant, l’hygrométrie et le pourcentage d’ouverture du milieu ont ensuite été mesurés.En premier lieu, la faune du sol a été échantillonnée durant 2 ans (non révolus), et les structures des communautés de Carabidae ont été analysées d’un point de vue taxonomique et fonctionnelle, au moyen de 5 traits écologiques. Les résultats montrent que la structure taxonomique est peu affectée, mais qu’à la fois l’activité-densité spécifique des espèces et les traits fonctionnels sont modifiés par le gradient d’ouverture du milieu. En particulier, la fermeture de la canopée du système agroforestier favorise les espèces ayant une affinité pour des milieux fermés et humides.L’activité journalière de deux prédateurs abondants a été caractérisée dans une période estivale chaude (juillet), et plus douce (septembre). Les résultats montrent qu’à la fois la saison mais également l’ouverture de la canopée peuvent modifier les rythmes journaliers de l’Arachnidae et du Carabidae les plus abondants à cette période (Pardosa hortensis, Pseudoophonus rufipes).Dans un troisième temps, le travail s’est focalisé sur le potentiel de prédation des prédateurs de la faune du sol, au moyen de cartes sentinelles de prédation à deux périodes estivales, juin et aout. Les résultats montrent que sur au moins une période, le potentiel de prédation sur larves de lépidoptères (Cydia pomonella) est différent entre les traitements. Ces différences sont probablement corrélées aux différences d’activité-densité et aux différences microclimatiques induites par les différences de couverts arborés.Dans un dernier temps, l’étude s’est focalisée sur une culture, la salade, et les dégâts causés par les limaces dans les différents traitements, sur les feuilles visibles. Plus de dégâts sous les arbres ont été constatés, malgré une activité-densité d’Arion lusitanicus et de Deroceras reticulatum non supérieures au témoin au mois de juin où les dégâts ont fortement augmenté. Les méthodes utilisées (planches, pots pièges neutres et attractifs) ont présenté des efficacités différentes, dont l’intérêt respectif est discuté. / Agroforestry, and more specifically sylvo-arable systems, are poorly studied systems with agronomic and environmental interests in temperate systems. They could provide a favorable microclimate for vegetable crops grown in organic agriculture in Mediterranean pedoclimatic context. However, there are still few scientific references on the subject, and the outcome of the interactions between trees and cultures are still unknown. The microclimate generated by old trees is likely to alter the relations between crops, pests and generalist predators, which can condition the performance of an agroforestry system.This thesis had two main objectives:• To evaluate the impact of canopy openness on ground beetle diversity and activity-density• Identify how the microclimate can influence natural regulation processes.Agroforestry systems develop over long periods (pluriannual): the study focused on a system already having 20-year-old trees to study the impact on microclimate and soil fauna. To modulate this microclimate, a canopy opening gradient has been realized. The ambient air temperature, the hygrometry and the percentage of canopy aperture were then measured.First, the soil fauna was sampled for 2 years and the structure of the Carabidae communities was analyzed from a taxonomic and functional point of view, using 5 ecological traits. The results show that the taxonomic structure is poorly affected, but that both species specific activity-density and functional traits are modified by the canopy openness, which favored species with affinity for closed and moist environments.The diel activity of two abundant predators was characterized in a hot summer period (July), and cooler (September). The results show that both the season and the opening of the canopy can modify the daily rhythms of the most abundant Arachnidae and Carabidae (Pardosa hortensis, Pseudoophonus rufipes).Thirdly, the work focused on the predation potential of predators of soil fauna, using sentinel preys method at two periods, (June and August). The results show that for at least one period, the predation potential on Lepidoptera larvae (Cydia pomonella) was different between treatments. These differences are probably correlated with differences in activity-density and microclimatic differences induced by the differences in canopy treatmentLastly, the study focused on lettuce crops and the damage caused by slugs in the different treatments, on the visible leaves. More damage under the trees was observed, despite a similar activity- density of Arion lusitanicus and Deroceras reticulatum compared to control in June, where the damage increased significantly. The methods used (boards, neutral traps and attractive traps) presented different efficiencies, whose respective interest is discussed.

As orbitelas de fio viscoso dao origem ao ramo mais diverso (Araneoidea) de Orbiculariae. Varias hipoteses foram levantadas para o aumento de diversidade de Araneoidea, mas nenhuma delas parece explicar completamente o fenomeno. O presente trabalho investigou uma nova hipotese: o surgimento do fio viscoso permitiu uma reducao da tenacidade, o que permitiria a exploracao de uma maior diversidade de microlocais, levand2,00cmo a maior diversificacao das especies no tempo evolutivo (Capitulo 1). A literatura mostra que a decisao de permanecer/desertar o microlocal (tenacidade) esta associada ao investimento na construcao da teia: aranhas de teias de alto custo (teias de lencol) tendem a apresentar tenacidade maior do que aranhas de teias de baixo custo (orbitelas). Para verificar se essa tendencia existe entre orbitelas com diferentes graus de investimento em teia, avaliamos a resposta de duas orbitelas, uma de fio viscoso (Metazygia rogenhoferi, Araneidae) e outra de fio cribelado (Zosis geniculata, Uloboridae) em funcao da reducao na dieta. Acompanhamos mudancas no abandono de microlocal e alteracoes de investimento em teia. A especie ecribelada nao muda a taxa de abandonos com a reducao na dieta, e mantem uma tenacidade baixa. Ao contrario, a especie cribelada aumenta a tenacidade e diminui o investimento em seda. No segundo experimento (Capitulo 2), medimos o custo de construcao dessas duas especies, para verificar se as teias orbiculares cribeladas tem um custo efetivamente maior do que o das teias orbiculares ecribeladas. Para tanto, realizamos medidas diretas do consumo de O2 (tecnica de respirometria fechada intermitente) em situacao de repouso e durante a construcao da teia. Essas medidas mostram que Z. geniculata mantem o metabolismo de repouso mais baixo, indicio de uma adaptacao metabolica para enfrentar uma restricao energetica maior. O consumo de O2 e tres vezes maior na construcao de cada centimetro de fio cribelado quando 1 comparado ao fio viscoso. O fato da teia orbicular ecribelada ser mais economica pode ajudar a entender a maior diversidade que este grupo apresenta em relacao ao ancestral de teia orbicular cribelada. Apresentando um metabolismo de atividade de construcao de teia mais economico, as orbitelas de fio viscoso puderam aumentar o seu nivel geral de atividade, deslocando-se mais frequentemente pelo ambiente, apresentando uma estrategia mais ativa de forrageamento. Isto leva a abandono mais frequente de microlocais expondo, assim, as orbitelas ecribeladas a uma maior diversidade de ambientes que, no longo prazo, poderia ser a chave para o aumento evolutivo na diversidade deste grupo. A perda do cribelo esta associada a um aumento significativo na diversidade de especies nao apenas entre as orbitelas, mas tambem em varios outros grupos dentro de Araneomorphae (Capitulo 3). Sendo o ponto comum, que se correlaciona a um aumento de diversidade em contextos morfologicos variados (diferentes grupos taxonomicos), bem como em situacoes ecologicamente distintas, a perda do cribelo surge como um fator causal privilegiado neste processo evolutivo. A hipotese de que a perda do fio cribelado de alto custo de construcao e responsavel pela maior diversificacao dos taxons ganha peso a partir da analise das multiplas perdas do cribelo ao longo da filogenia de Araneomorphae / The origin of the most diverse branch of orbweavers, the Araneoidea, coincides with the origin of the viscid silk in the group Orbiculariae. Many hypotheses were proposed to explain the increased diversity in Araneoidea, however none of them explain this phenomena completely. The present work investigates a new hypothesis: the disappearance of the cribellate silk (substituted by the viscid silk) allowed a reduction in tenacity, which in turn allowed the exploration of a major diversity of microhabitats, leading to a major diversification in the evolutionary time (Chapter 1). The literature shows that the decision of stay/leave the microhabitat (tenacity) is associated to the investment in web construction: spiders with costly webs (sheet web spiders) tend to present higher tenacity than spiders with low cost webs (orb web spiders). In order to test if this tendency also occurs among orbweavers with different web costs, we evaluated the response of a viscid (Metazygia rogenhoferi, Araneidae) and a cribellate silk orbweaver (Zosis geniculata, Uloboridae) to a reduction in food supply. We measured web parameters and the latency to abandon the site. The ecribellate spider maintain unaltered its low tenacity levels, even after the reduction in food supply. On other hand, the cribellate spider increases the tenacity and reduces web investment. In the second experiment (Chapter 2) we measured the construction and maintenance costs of the two species in order to verify if the cribellate orb webs have effectively a higher cost than the ecribellate ones. This was made through direct measurement of the spider 02 consumption (closed intermittent respirometry technique) while resting and building the web. These measurements show that Z. geniculata keeps a lower resting metabolism, what suggests a metabolic adaptation to energetic restrictions. While building the web, the consumption of O2 per centimeter of adhesive silk was three times higher in the cribellate than in the ecribellate web. The lower 3 cost of the ecribellate orb web can help us understand the higher diversity of this group in relation to the basal cribellate orb web. With a low cost web, the viscid silk orbweavers can have sustain a higher activity level, moving more frequently and showing a more active foraging strategy. The frequent abandonment of microhabitats expose these spiders to a higher environmental diversity. In the long evolutionary run this can be the key to the high diversity in this group. Loosing the cribellum is associated to a significant increase in species diversity not only among orbweavers, but also in many other Araneomorphae groups (Chapter 3). As a common theme uniting the increase in diversity in such disparate groups, with such diverse morphologies and ecologies, the loss of the cribellum emerges as a favored causal factor in this evolutionary process. The analysis of the multiple losses of the cribellum along the phylogeny of Araneomorphae gives strength to the hypothesis that the loss of the high cost cribellate thread leads to major taxonomic diversifications

Orientador: Mario Sergio Palma / Coorientador: Lucilene Delazari dos Santos / Banca: Norma Yamanouke / Banca: Valquiria Abrao Coronado Dorce / Resumo: O aumento populacional de animais peçonhentos em áreas urbanizadas ou de atividades relacionadas à exploração de áreas naturais vem favorecendo um aumento significativo na ocorrência de acidentes devido ao contato do homem com estes animais. Dessa forma, o envenenamento por toxinas animais tem sido objeto de muitos estudos pelo homem por se revelarem úteis no desenvolvimento de novos fármacos e de novas abordagens metodológicas ou técnicas resolutivas. Os acidentes por escorpiões são os que apresentam o maior número de registro de casos dentre todos os animais peçonhentos no Brasil. Ao longo dos mais de cem anos de pesquisas com venenos destes animais, o foco toxinológico tem se concentrado quase que exclusivamente nas proteínas, responsáveis pela difusão do veneno nos tecidos das presas e/ou vítimas de ferroadas, e principalmente nos peptídeos longos (apresentando entre 30 e 70 resíduos de amino ácidos) responsáveis pelas ações neurotóxicas. A despeito da existência de pequenos peptídeos lineares nesses venenos são raros os estudos que visam elucidar a estrutura molecular e funcional dos pequenos peptídeos. O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar peptídeos deste grupo (negligenciados) no veneno do escorpião Tityus serrulatus. Para isto, o veneno bruto deste escorpião foi submetido a extração diretamente em acetonitrila 50 % (v/v), e a fração solúvel foi fracionada, e cada fração individual foi submetida à análise por espectrometria de massas ESI-IT-TOF-MS e MSn a fim obter as sequências completas de novos peptídeos. A estratégia utilizada permitiu a identificação de cinco novos peptídeos, estruturalmente diferenciados daqueles já descritos na literatura. Os peptídeos caracterizaram-se por serem lineares e não possuírem cisteínas. Desta forma, eles ampliam a classe... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The increasing population of venomous animals in urbanized areas or activities related to the exploitation of natural areas has favored significant accidents due to human contact with these animals. Thus, the toxins from animal venoms has been the subject of many studies prove useful in developing new drugs and new methodological approaches or high-resolution techniques. Scorpions's accidents are those with the highest number of reported cases among all venomous animals. More than a hundred years of research with these poisons animals, the principal focus toxinology is on proteins, responsible for the spread of the venom in tissues prey or victims, especially in neurotoxic peptides (presenting between 30 and 70 amino acid residues). Despite on the existence of small and linear peptides in these venoms are few studies exploring the molecular structure and function of small peptides. The present study aimed to the study of this peptides group (at moment is neglected) from scorpion venom Tityus serrulatus. For this, the venom were fractionated by chromatography, posteriorly each fraction was subjected to individual analysis by mass spectrometry (LC-MS IT-ToF) in order to obtain the complete sequence about novel peptides. This strategy promoted the detection of five undiscovered peptide sequences highly differentiated those previously described at literature. The peptides were characterized like non-disulfide-bridged peptides it is contributed to expanding the class of scorpions peptides with similar physicochemical characteristic. Two peptides were synthesized on solid phase (fraction 14 and fraction 18) and tested by biological activity in vivo and in vitro. The fraction 18 showed us antinociceptive and edematogenic effect, in addition to antibiotic effect. These results has been demonstrated the large biotechnology... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

As orbitelas de fio viscoso dao origem ao ramo mais diverso (Araneoidea) de Orbiculariae. Varias hipoteses foram levantadas para o aumento de diversidade de Araneoidea, mas nenhuma delas parece explicar completamente o fenomeno. O presente trabalho investigou uma nova hipotese: o surgimento do fio viscoso permitiu uma reducao da tenacidade, o que permitiria a exploracao de uma maior diversidade de microlocais, levand2,00cmo a maior diversificacao das especies no tempo evolutivo (Capitulo 1). A literatura mostra que a decisao de permanecer/desertar o microlocal (tenacidade) esta associada ao investimento na construcao da teia: aranhas de teias de alto custo (teias de lencol) tendem a apresentar tenacidade maior do que aranhas de teias de baixo custo (orbitelas). Para verificar se essa tendencia existe entre orbitelas com diferentes graus de investimento em teia, avaliamos a resposta de duas orbitelas, uma de fio viscoso (Metazygia rogenhoferi, Araneidae) e outra de fio cribelado (Zosis geniculata, Uloboridae) em funcao da reducao na dieta. Acompanhamos mudancas no abandono de microlocal e alteracoes de investimento em teia. A especie ecribelada nao muda a taxa de abandonos com a reducao na dieta, e mantem uma tenacidade baixa. Ao contrario, a especie cribelada aumenta a tenacidade e diminui o investimento em seda. No segundo experimento (Capitulo 2), medimos o custo de construcao dessas duas especies, para verificar se as teias orbiculares cribeladas tem um custo efetivamente maior do que o das teias orbiculares ecribeladas. Para tanto, realizamos medidas diretas do consumo de O2 (tecnica de respirometria fechada intermitente) em situacao de repouso e durante a construcao da teia. Essas medidas mostram que Z. geniculata mantem o metabolismo de repouso mais baixo, indicio de uma adaptacao metabolica para enfrentar uma restricao energetica maior. O consumo de O2 e tres vezes maior na construcao de cada centimetro de fio cribelado quando 1 comparado ao fio viscoso. O fato da teia orbicular ecribelada ser mais economica pode ajudar a entender a maior diversidade que este grupo apresenta em relacao ao ancestral de teia orbicular cribelada. Apresentando um metabolismo de atividade de construcao de teia mais economico, as orbitelas de fio viscoso puderam aumentar o seu nivel geral de atividade, deslocando-se mais frequentemente pelo ambiente, apresentando uma estrategia mais ativa de forrageamento. Isto leva a abandono mais frequente de microlocais expondo, assim, as orbitelas ecribeladas a uma maior diversidade de ambientes que, no longo prazo, poderia ser a chave para o aumento evolutivo na diversidade deste grupo. A perda do cribelo esta associada a um aumento significativo na diversidade de especies nao apenas entre as orbitelas, mas tambem em varios outros grupos dentro de Araneomorphae (Capitulo 3). Sendo o ponto comum, que se correlaciona a um aumento de diversidade em contextos morfologicos variados (diferentes grupos taxonomicos), bem como em situacoes ecologicamente distintas, a perda do cribelo surge como um fator causal privilegiado neste processo evolutivo. A hipotese de que a perda do fio cribelado de alto custo de construcao e responsavel pela maior diversificacao dos taxons ganha peso a partir da analise das multiplas perdas do cribelo ao longo da filogenia de Araneomorphae / The origin of the most diverse branch of orbweavers, the Araneoidea, coincides with the origin of the viscid silk in the group Orbiculariae. Many hypotheses were proposed to explain the increased diversity in Araneoidea, however none of them explain this phenomena completely. The present work investigates a new hypothesis: the disappearance of the cribellate silk (substituted by the viscid silk) allowed a reduction in tenacity, which in turn allowed the exploration of a major diversity of microhabitats, leading to a major diversification in the evolutionary time (Chapter 1). The literature shows that the decision of stay/leave the microhabitat (tenacity) is associated to the investment in web construction: spiders with costly webs (sheet web spiders) tend to present higher tenacity than spiders with low cost webs (orb web spiders). In order to test if this tendency also occurs among orbweavers with different web costs, we evaluated the response of a viscid (Metazygia rogenhoferi, Araneidae) and a cribellate silk orbweaver (Zosis geniculata, Uloboridae) to a reduction in food supply. We measured web parameters and the latency to abandon the site. The ecribellate spider maintain unaltered its low tenacity levels, even after the reduction in food supply. On other hand, the cribellate spider increases the tenacity and reduces web investment. In the second experiment (Chapter 2) we measured the construction and maintenance costs of the two species in order to verify if the cribellate orb webs have effectively a higher cost than the ecribellate ones. This was made through direct measurement of the spider 02 consumption (closed intermittent respirometry technique) while resting and building the web. These measurements show that Z. geniculata keeps a lower resting metabolism, what suggests a metabolic adaptation to energetic restrictions. While building the web, the consumption of O2 per centimeter of adhesive silk was three times higher in the cribellate than in the ecribellate web. The lower 3 cost of the ecribellate orb web can help us understand the higher diversity of this group in relation to the basal cribellate orb web. With a low cost web, the viscid silk orbweavers can have sustain a higher activity level, moving more frequently and showing a more active foraging strategy. The frequent abandonment of microhabitats expose these spiders to a higher environmental diversity. In the long evolutionary run this can be the key to the high diversity in this group. Loosing the cribellum is associated to a significant increase in species diversity not only among orbweavers, but also in many other Araneomorphae groups (Chapter 3). As a common theme uniting the increase in diversity in such disparate groups, with such diverse morphologies and ecologies, the loss of the cribellum emerges as a favored causal factor in this evolutionary process. The analysis of the multiple losses of the cribellum along the phylogeny of Araneomorphae gives strength to the hypothesis that the loss of the high cost cribellate thread leads to major taxonomic diversifications

This thesis investigates species diversity and patterns of molecular evolution in Arachnida through DNA barcoding. The first chapter assesses mite species richness through comprehensive sampling at a subarctic location in Canada. Barcode analysis of 6279 specimens revealed nearly 900 presumptive species with high rates of turnover between major habitat types, demonstrating the utility of DNA barcoding for biodiversity surveys of understudied taxa. The second chapter explores nucleotide composition, indel occurrence, and rates of amino acid evolution in Arachnida. The results suggest a significant shift in nucleotide composition in the arachnid subclasses of Pulmonata (GC = 37.0%) and Apulmonata (GC = 34.2%). Indels were detected in five apulmonate orders, with deletions being much more common than insertions. Finally, rates of amino acid evolution were detected among the orders, and were negatively correlated with generation length, suggesting that generation time is a significant contributor to variation in molecular rates of evolution in arachnids.

"It is thought that phobias are caused by a fear of the unknown and can be overcome by self-help learning resulting in better understanding. Observation and scientific investigation have been used to create a body of artwork for the purpose of helping to desensitize people who suffer from arachnophobia. Field trip collections, photography, printmaking and installations have been used to capture, explore and create visual artworks that have been designed to highlight fact-based features of spiders and their webs." / Master of Arts (Visual Arts)

"It is thought that phobias are caused by a fear of the unknown and can be overcome by self-help learning resulting in better understanding. Observation and scientific investigation have been used to create a body of artwork for the purpose of helping to desensitize people who suffer from arachnophobia. Field trip collections, photography, printmaking and installations have been used to capture, explore and create visual artworks that have been designed to highlight fact-based features of spiders and their webs." / Master of Arts (Visual Arts)

[Truncated abstract] The southern-temperate spider family Micropholcommatidae is a poorly-studied taxon of uncertain limits and uncertain affinities. Since the first Australian species were described in the early twentieth century, and the family was erected in 1944, the taxonomic status and phylogenetic placement of the Micropholcommatidae have been the subject of ongoing debate. Various phylogenetic hypotheses have been proposed for the family, but these hypotheses have never been tested with a robust phylogenetic analysis – a problem compounded by the inadequate state and confusing history of micropholcommatid taxonomy. To address the many gaps in our understanding of micropholcommatid interrelationships, this thesis will present a comprehensive systematic treatment of the family. Using a combination of molecular phylogenetic, morphological cladistic and taxonomic methods, micropholcommatid diversity is documented and tested at multiple systematic levels, with an alpha-taxonomic and biogeographic focus on the diverse Australian fauna. The taxonomic contribution is substantial throughout, with one new family, two new subfamilies, one new tribe, 14 new genera and 37 new species described. A combined molecular phylogenetic study is presented in Chapter 2, as a 'first pass' exploration of the monophyly, limits and phylogenetic position of the family Micropholcommatidae. The analyses incorporated 50 ingroup spider species, including 23 micropholcommatid taxa, with nucleotide sequences obtained from two nuclear ribosomal RNA genes (18S and 28S). ...The new subfamily Gigiellinae is also described for two enigmatic species in the newly-described genus Gigiella, known only from the temperate Nothofagus rainforests of south-eastern Australia and southern Chile. As a final contribution to micropholcommatid taxonomy, and as an extension to the cladistic analyses presented in Chapter 5, the new spider family Teutoniellidae is proposed in Chapter 6 for three genera from South America, South Africa and Australia. Teutoniellid monophyly is evidenced by at least two unambiguous synapomorphies, and the morphology of the family is described in relation to other symphytognathidan and EbCY spider taxa. The nominate genus Teutoniella is redescribed to include three species from South America, along with an additional new species from Tasmania. Two new teutoniellid genera are also described, each for a single new species from South Africa: Inflaticrus ansieae is described from the Langeberg Range, east of Cape Town; and Woldius hennigi is described from near Pietermaritzburg, north-west of Durban. In summary, this thesis provides a taxonomic and phylogenetic framework for all future research on micropholcommatid spiders. It presents new data on the phylogeny, phylogenetic position, composition, biogeography, molecular evolution and natural history of a previously poorly-known group of spiders, and highlights a number of remaining gaps in our knowledge of micropholcommatid and araneoid systematics. As a novel contribution to scholarship, this thesis synthesises taxonomic and phylogenetic hypotheses at multiple systematic levels, and tests those hypotheses with original, combined datasets.