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Taiwans whale watching industry has been prosper rapidly since 1997 while not any law administering it .Due to free market structure the resource of whale watching would be excessly exploited and the whale watching industry will not exist any more. There are three research topics on the institutional design of the industry in my article. Namely , the administering department and its related rules for whale watching industry to be established, the cost analysis for governance structure of institution, and the study of franchise for Taiwan¡¦s current whale watching industry. According to Williamson¡]1991¡^,I present three kinds of organization style¡]i.e. market ,hierarchy organization and their mixed form¡^ and their key differences to figure out the most efficient one. And finally I come to a conclusion that the franchise is the most efficient of the three kinds of organizational style and can be a reference structure for making law on Taiwan¡¦s whale watching industry.

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In the current third wave of internationalization companies from mature markets are investing in emerging markets and increase their foreign activities. For this internationalization process, companies need to enter the market with an appropriate entry mode strategy. Prior research focused mainly on MNC entry modes and also on factors as ownership, location or internalization advantages and not on SMEs and transaction cost theory. This thesis deals with the topic of institutions, transaction costs and entry mode decisions of Swedish SMEs in India. The purpose of this thesis is to understand the managerial perceptions about the influence of institutions on the degree of linkage specificity with which the transaction costs will be explored. This will lead to further knowledge about certain entry mode decisions of Swedish SMEs for the Indian market. This was studied with a qualitative research strategy using a multiple case study method. The empirical data was conducted via secondary data and primary data was collected via interviews with the sales responsible of the four case companies Norden Machinery AB, Slipnaxos AB, Håkansson Sågblad AB and Hedin Lagan AB. Main findings of the research were that institutions are perceived differently by the managers and therefore the institutions dissimilarly influenced the perceptions of the transaction costs. Furthermore, the study revealed that some managers decided their entry mode on the base of the perception of the transaction costs and some managers did not consider transaction costs when entering new markets. All in all it can be stated that transaction costs influence the entry mode of companies. The research is limited by the fact that transaction cost theory in general neglects factors as production costs. Managerial implications are that transactions costs should not be neglected as they help to choose a more successful entry mode and that the assets specificity and the behavioral uncertainties need to be taken into account when deciding upon an entry mode. Theory profits from this thesis as it proved that transaction costs influence entry mode decisions and that the linkage specificity is an important factor to include when combining transaction cost theory with entry mode decisions.

As negociações apresentam uma zona de possível acordo sempre que o valor de reserva do comprador excede o valor de reserva do vendedor. Howard Raiffa permitiu uma formalização para analisar as negociações, ao representá-las por meio dessa zona de acordo. Neste estudo, propõe-se que esse modelo seja utilizado para análise das renegociações. Para tanto, foram incorporados alguns elementos da Economia dos Custos de Transação já que, entre a negociação e a renegociação, ocorre a deterioração do valor de reserva detido pelo agente que promoveu investimentos em ativos específicos à transação. Os elementos incorporados dessa teoria foram: racionalidade limitada, especificidade de ativos e comportamento oportunista. Em razão da racionalidade limitada, os acordos e contratos são incompletos, porque a previsão de todas as contingências é impossível ou, na melhor das hipóteses, demasiado dispendiosa. Com isso, muitas vezes as partes necessitam promover revisões contratuais, o que demanda o estabelecimento de renegociações. Porém, entre a negociação e a renegociação, sempre que uma das partes investir em ativos específicos à transação, o seu valor de reserva se torna menos favorável, reduzindo o seu poder relativo de negociação. Nessas condições, a contraparte pode agir oportunisticamente, expropriando quase-rendas que antes eram auferidas pelo agente responsável pelos investimentos específicos. Apesar de a Economia dos Custos de Transação adotar o comportamento oportunista como pressuposto comportamental, não afirma que todos os indivíduos agem oportunisticamente o tempo todo. A freqüência das transações e a reputação apresentam-se como restrições a esse comportamento. Além disso, alguns estudiosos entendem que os agentes podem não empregar o comportamento oportunista nas renegociações, já que muitas pessoas procurariam recompensar os indivíduos que no passado lhe fizeram alguma ação favorável. Para examinar que comportamento a contraparte emprega nessa situação, foi realizada uma pesquisa experimental com alunos da Universidade de São Paulo. Os participantes, agrupados em pares, deveriam negociar um determinado bem. A pesquisa envolveu dois estágios: negociação de preços para o primeiro ano, em que as partes tinham seus valores de reserva originais, pois os investimentos específicos ainda não haviam sido realizados; e negociação de preços para o segundo ano. Neste último estágio, denominado de renegociação, o valor de reserva de uma das partes havia se deteriorado, em razão dos investimentos específicos. A comparação entre os resultados da negociação e da renegociação permitiu constatar que alguns agentes empregaram o comportamento oportunista. Em 62,7% dos casos, houve alguma redução de preços entre a negociação e a renegociação. Em alguns casos, a pilhagem na renegociação foi tão intensa que o agente expropriado obteve um valor menor do que aquele proporcionado pelo valor de reserva original. A pesquisa revelou que o comportamento oportunista foi mais freqüente e ocorreu com maior intensidade com alunos que já se conheciam. Por fim, o comportamento oportunista não apresentou associações significativas com idade e sexo dos participantes, com o ano de ingresso na faculdade ou com a postura competitiva na primeira etapa das negociações. / A possible agreement zone appears in negotiations whenever the buyer's reservation value exceeds that of the seller. Howard Raiffa brought a fairly structured manner to the analysis of negotiations by representing them through this agreement zone. Our intention is for this model to be used in the analysis of renegotiations. To that end, some elements of Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) have been incorporated inasmuch as deterioration occurs, between the negotiation and the renegotiation, in the reservation value detained by the agent that made investments in transaction specific assets. The elements incorporated from the TCE were the following: limited rationality, asset specificity and opportunistic behavior. Limited rationality leads to incomplete agreements and contracts because forecasting all contingencies is impossible or, in the best of hypotheses, too expensive. For that reason, the parties often need to carry out contractual revisions, which require setting up renegotiations. Nevertheless, whenever one of the parties invests in transaction-specific assets between the negotiation and the renegotiation, its reservation value becomes less favorable thus reducing its relative negotiation power. Under those conditions, a counterpart can have an opportunistic behavior, thus expropriating the quasi rents that were before received by the agent responsible for the specific investments. Although TCE adopts opportunistic behavior as the behavior premise, it does not state that all individuals act opportunistically all of the time. Both the frequency of the transactions and the reputation limit this kind of behavior. Besides, some scholars understand that agents might not act opportunistically in negotiations, insofar as many people would seek to reward individuals who took a favorable action toward them. In order to examine which behavior becomes active in the counterpart in this situation, an experimental research was accomplished with students from the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Paired participants were instructed to negotiate a specific asset. The research involved two stages: price negotiation for the first year, in which the parties had their original reservation values, since specific investments had not yet been made; and price negotiation for the second year. In this last stage, called renegotiation, the reservation value of one of the parties had deteriorated due to specific investments. The compared outcomes of the negotiation and renegotiation allowed verifying that some agents did act opportunistically. In 62.7% of the cases there was a price reduction between the negotiation and the renegotiation. In some cases, hold-up in the renegotiation was so intense that the expropriated agent obtained a lower value than that of the original reservation value. The research revealed that opportunistic behavior was more frequent and more intense among students who already knew each other. Final conclusion was that the opportunistic behavior was not significantly associated with participants' age or gender, the year of college entrance or competitive stand in the first round of negotiations.

<p>This dissertation studies three interrelated concepts—power, knowledge, and mobility—in order to understand how knowledge mobility (specificity) affects power in the knowledge economy. To do this, the thesis is divided into two parts. The first part develops a theoretical approach, while the second employs this theoretical approach to different empirical fields. In the first, theoretical, part, the dissertation begins by discussing the different ways that the sundry literatures on power, asset specificity and knowledge types have developed. These literature reviews are used to develop a set of theoretically-deduced expectations in Chapter 5. These chapters contribute to broadening our understanding of the core concepts, especially asset and factor specificity, by explicitly linking them to the notion of knowledge mobility and to configurations of power.</p><p>The second part of the dissertation interrogates the expectations developed in Chapter 5 across three different venues: a case study of a regime change in a knowledge-intensive consultancy firm; cross-national multivariate statistical assessments on the relationship between specificity, knowledge, and configurations of power; and an historical case study of how the co-working of a set of international institutions—the World Intellectual Property Organization, the International Organization for Standardization, and the World Trade Organization—influences knowledge specificity and mobility. These empirical studies elaborate how knowledge mobility and power are interrelated. The chapters are suggesting that the degree of knowledge mobility may be seen as an element in otherwise well-known, empirical regularities. These sorts of similarities are revealed at all three (firm, national and international) levels.</p><p>The dissertation employs a broad methodological approach that swaps between analytical levels, alternative operationalizations, methods and causal interpretations. The resulting "montage effect" combines case studies, multivariate regressions, and institutional analyses to create a picture that may be seen as rich representation of a reality. This picture reveals that the specificity and mobility of assets matters for shaping and reshaping configurations of power.</p>

This dissertation studies three interrelated concepts—power, knowledge, and mobility—in order to understand how knowledge mobility (specificity) affects power in the knowledge economy. To do this, the thesis is divided into two parts. The first part develops a theoretical approach, while the second employs this theoretical approach to different empirical fields. In the first, theoretical, part, the dissertation begins by discussing the different ways that the sundry literatures on power, asset specificity and knowledge types have developed. These literature reviews are used to develop a set of theoretically-deduced expectations in Chapter 5. These chapters contribute to broadening our understanding of the core concepts, especially asset and factor specificity, by explicitly linking them to the notion of knowledge mobility and to configurations of power. The second part of the dissertation interrogates the expectations developed in Chapter 5 across three different venues: a case study of a regime change in a knowledge-intensive consultancy firm; cross-national multivariate statistical assessments on the relationship between specificity, knowledge, and configurations of power; and an historical case study of how the co-working of a set of international institutions—the World Intellectual Property Organization, the International Organization for Standardization, and the World Trade Organization—influences knowledge specificity and mobility. These empirical studies elaborate how knowledge mobility and power are interrelated. The chapters are suggesting that the degree of knowledge mobility may be seen as an element in otherwise well-known, empirical regularities. These sorts of similarities are revealed at all three (firm, national and international) levels. The dissertation employs a broad methodological approach that swaps between analytical levels, alternative operationalizations, methods and causal interpretations. The resulting "montage effect" combines case studies, multivariate regressions, and institutional analyses to create a picture that may be seen as rich representation of a reality. This picture reveals that the specificity and mobility of assets matters for shaping and reshaping configurations of power.

Cette thèse est composée de quatre chapitres et analyse une régularité empirique très mal connue et très peu analysée : les « formes organisationnelles plurielles ». Dans le premier chapitre, j’examine les diverses tentatives de théoriser les formes plurielles et comment ce domaine a évolué au fil du temps. Cela me permet d’identifier deux variables qu’on retrouve au cœur des idées exprimées dans ces tentatives pour expliquer l’existence et la stabilité des formes plurielles : la spécificité des actifs ainsi que les facteurs d’incertitude. Néanmoins, ces variables sont restées très mal explorées, ce qui pointe la nécessité de nouvelles contributions théoriques sur ce sujet. Dans le deuxième chapitre, je cherche à comprendre ce qui explique la variété des formes plurielles. Je propose un modèle théorique intégrant la spécificité des actifs et l'incertitude pour pronostiquer l’existence des formes plurielles et non plurielles. Ensuite, je souligne que les formes plurielles sont hétérogènes et je construis des hypothèses mettant en relation différents types d’incertitude avec des formes plurielles différentes. Dans les deux chapitres suivants, le modèle théorique et les hypothèses sont confrontés à des données empiriques qualitatives. Le troisième chapitre confronte le modèle théorique à une étude de cas clinique menée au sein d’une entreprise, l’entreprise Korin (Brésil), qui produit et vend divers produits bios. Enfin dans le chapitre quatre, le modèle théorique et les hypothèses sont confrontés à des données recueillies à partir d’une enquête sur l’approvisionnement en ‘inputs’ auprès de 24 entreprises opérant dans le secteur agricole brésilien. Je trouve dans ces deux articles des concordances fortes à l’appui de mon modèle et des hypothèses que j’en ai dérivées, ce qui ouvre la voie à de nouvelles recherches. / This dissertation is composed of four chapters and addresses an empirical regularity about which very little is known: “plural forms”. In the first chapter, I intend to verify what has been theorized about plural forms and how this field has evolved over time. I identified two variables that underlie most of the theoretical explanations for the existence and stability of plural forms: asset specificity and uncertainty. However, these variables are very seldom explored, which points towards the need for novel contributions. In the second chapter, I am concerned with explaining the variety of plural form manifestations. I built a theoretical model integrating asset specificity and uncertainty to predict plural and non-plural forms. Next, I stressed that plural forms are heterogeneous and built hypotheses relating different types of uncertainty to different types of plural forms. In the next two chapters, I empirically confront my theoretical model and hypotheses with qualitative data. In the third chapter, I confront my model by performing an embedded clinical case study on the Korin company (in Brazil), which produces and commercializes multiple organic products; while in the final chapter, I intend to empirically confront both my theoretical model and my hypotheses and survey the procurement of inputs by 24 companies operating in the Brazilian Agribusiness sector. I find support for my model and for my hypotheses on both of these papers, indicating a path for further analyses.

Os limites de uma firma são determinados a partir das capacidades e recursos que esta possui. A firma não poderá desenvolver atividades que necessitem de capacidades e recursos dos quais não dispõe, ao menos que seja capaz de aprimorar tais elementos em sua estrutura. A capacidade tecnológica é o conjunto de habilidades que permitem este aperfeiçoamento e que determina a diferenciação dos recursos da firma, gerando suas especificidades, ou o que chama-se de ativo específico. A capacidade tecnológica e os ativos específicos atuam para que a firma apresente vantagens competitivas e se mantenha atuante frente a um mercado que muda constantemente. Contudo, as diferenças que podem ser percebidas de setor para setor de atividade, ou até mesmo entre firmas de um mesmo setor, são capazes de influenciar a relação entre tais elementos para o desenvolvimento da firma. Com o intuito de analisar a relação entre os ativos específicos e a capacidade tecnológica, foi conduzida uma survey no setor vitivinícola gaúcho. A escolha do setor deve-se a sua busca contínua para expressar a singularidade de suas técnicas através do produto que comercializa, o vinho. Ademais, o setor vitivinícola gaúcho concentra atualmente mais de 90% da produção brasileira de uva e derivados. Foram entrevistadas 221 vinícolas, com vistas a avaliar a especificidade de ativos e a capacidade tecnológica em seus negócios. Após avaliar as variáveis mencionadas, realizou-se testes de análise de regressão para conhecer o comportamento entre as variáveis, a forma como se relacionam no setor. Através dos testes realizados foi possível verificar que como formas de predição, ou seja, o quanto uma variável é capaz de determinar a variância de outra, os ativos específicos e a capacidade tecnológica representam somente 31% deste poder e, que ainda existe uma discreta superioridade de influência da capacidade tecnológica nos ativos específicos. Foi possível também realizar uma análise por tipo de produto, e observou-se que tanto vinícolas que se destacam na produção do vinho de mesa, quanto as que dedicam-se ao vinho fino apresentam níveis de especificidade de ativos e características acerca de sua capacidade tecnológica semelhantes. Os resultados mencionados destacam o potencial que pode ser encontrado no vinho de mesa, com vistas a reduzir as diferenças de qualidade deste produto em comparação ao vinho fino. Este último, já se encontra em um patamar mais elevado de desenvolvimento, no entanto o vinho de mesa também pode ser encarado como um produto de alta qualidade, porém com características distintas e que, na realidade, agradam uma significativa parcela dos consumidores brasileiros. / Firm boundaries are determined by its capabilities and resources. The firm cannot develop activities that require capabilities and resources it does not have, unless it can improve those elements in its structure. Technological capability is the set of skills that allow this improvement and define resources’ differentiation, generating its specificity, or what is called asset specificity. Technological capability and asset specificity provide competitive advantage to the firm and maintain its operations in a constantly changing market. However, differences between industries, or even between firms in the same industry, could influence the relationship of these elements for the firm’s development. In order to analyze the relationship between asset specificity and technological capability, a survey has been carried out in the wine industry. This industry has been selected due to a constant search to express the uniqueness of its techniques through its product, wine. Moreover, the focus is on the wine industry of Rio Grande do Sul state, which concentrates over 90% of Brazilian grape products. It has been interviewed 221 wineries, with the aim to assess the asset specificity and technological capabilities in their business. After evaluating these variables, regression analysis tests have been performed to understand the way variables are related in the mentioned industry. It has been verified that as a mean of prediction, i.e., how much of a variable can predict the other variable’s variance, asset specificity and technological capability represent only 31% of this power, but there is still a slight superiority of technological capability influence on asset specificity. An analysis based on the type of product has been also conducted, which showed that both wineries, those who excel in the production of table wine, and those who are dedicated to fine wine, present levels of asset specificity and technological capacity characteristics alike. The results emphasize the potential table wines may have, in order to reduce the differences in quality when compared to fine wine. The latter is already in a higher level of development, however, table wine can also be seen as a product of high quality, but with different characteristics, that actually, please a significant portion of Brazilian consumers.

Os limites de uma firma são determinados a partir das capacidades e recursos que esta possui. A firma não poderá desenvolver atividades que necessitem de capacidades e recursos dos quais não dispõe, ao menos que seja capaz de aprimorar tais elementos em sua estrutura. A capacidade tecnológica é o conjunto de habilidades que permitem este aperfeiçoamento e que determina a diferenciação dos recursos da firma, gerando suas especificidades, ou o que chama-se de ativo específico. A capacidade tecnológica e os ativos específicos atuam para que a firma apresente vantagens competitivas e se mantenha atuante frente a um mercado que muda constantemente. Contudo, as diferenças que podem ser percebidas de setor para setor de atividade, ou até mesmo entre firmas de um mesmo setor, são capazes de influenciar a relação entre tais elementos para o desenvolvimento da firma. Com o intuito de analisar a relação entre os ativos específicos e a capacidade tecnológica, foi conduzida uma survey no setor vitivinícola gaúcho. A escolha do setor deve-se a sua busca contínua para expressar a singularidade de suas técnicas através do produto que comercializa, o vinho. Ademais, o setor vitivinícola gaúcho concentra atualmente mais de 90% da produção brasileira de uva e derivados. Foram entrevistadas 221 vinícolas, com vistas a avaliar a especificidade de ativos e a capacidade tecnológica em seus negócios. Após avaliar as variáveis mencionadas, realizou-se testes de análise de regressão para conhecer o comportamento entre as variáveis, a forma como se relacionam no setor. Através dos testes realizados foi possível verificar que como formas de predição, ou seja, o quanto uma variável é capaz de determinar a variância de outra, os ativos específicos e a capacidade tecnológica representam somente 31% deste poder e, que ainda existe uma discreta superioridade de influência da capacidade tecnológica nos ativos específicos. Foi possível também realizar uma análise por tipo de produto, e observou-se que tanto vinícolas que se destacam na produção do vinho de mesa, quanto as que dedicam-se ao vinho fino apresentam níveis de especificidade de ativos e características acerca de sua capacidade tecnológica semelhantes. Os resultados mencionados destacam o potencial que pode ser encontrado no vinho de mesa, com vistas a reduzir as diferenças de qualidade deste produto em comparação ao vinho fino. Este último, já se encontra em um patamar mais elevado de desenvolvimento, no entanto o vinho de mesa também pode ser encarado como um produto de alta qualidade, porém com características distintas e que, na realidade, agradam uma significativa parcela dos consumidores brasileiros. / Firm boundaries are determined by its capabilities and resources. The firm cannot develop activities that require capabilities and resources it does not have, unless it can improve those elements in its structure. Technological capability is the set of skills that allow this improvement and define resources’ differentiation, generating its specificity, or what is called asset specificity. Technological capability and asset specificity provide competitive advantage to the firm and maintain its operations in a constantly changing market. However, differences between industries, or even between firms in the same industry, could influence the relationship of these elements for the firm’s development. In order to analyze the relationship between asset specificity and technological capability, a survey has been carried out in the wine industry. This industry has been selected due to a constant search to express the uniqueness of its techniques through its product, wine. Moreover, the focus is on the wine industry of Rio Grande do Sul state, which concentrates over 90% of Brazilian grape products. It has been interviewed 221 wineries, with the aim to assess the asset specificity and technological capabilities in their business. After evaluating these variables, regression analysis tests have been performed to understand the way variables are related in the mentioned industry. It has been verified that as a mean of prediction, i.e., how much of a variable can predict the other variable’s variance, asset specificity and technological capability represent only 31% of this power, but there is still a slight superiority of technological capability influence on asset specificity. An analysis based on the type of product has been also conducted, which showed that both wineries, those who excel in the production of table wine, and those who are dedicated to fine wine, present levels of asset specificity and technological capacity characteristics alike. The results emphasize the potential table wines may have, in order to reduce the differences in quality when compared to fine wine. The latter is already in a higher level of development, however, table wine can also be seen as a product of high quality, but with different characteristics, that actually, please a significant portion of Brazilian consumers.