BACKGROUND:Diffuse axonal injury is a common consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and often co-occurs with hypoxia, resulting in poor neurological outcome for which there is no current therapy. Here, we investigate the ability of the multifunctional compound erythropoietin (EPO) to provide neuroprotection when administered to rats after diffuse TBI alone or with post-traumatic hypoxia.METHODS:Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to diffuse traumatic axonal injury (TAI) followed by 30minutes of hypoxic (Hx, 12% O2) or normoxic ventilation, and were administered recombinant human EPO-alpha (5000IU/kg) or saline at 1 and 24hours post-injury. The parameters examined included: 1) behavioural and cognitive deficit using the Rotarod, open field and novel object recognition tests / 2) axonal pathology (NF-200) / 3) callosal degradation (hematoxylin and eosin stain) / 3) dendritic loss (MAP2) / 4) expression and localisation of the EPO receptor (EpoR) / 5) activation/infiltration of microglia/macrophages (CD68) and production of IL-1beta.RESULTS:EPO significantly improved sensorimotor and cognitive recovery when administered to TAI rats with hypoxia (TAI+Hx). A single dose of EPO at 1hour reduced axonal damage in the white matter of TAI+Hx rats at 1day by 60% compared to vehicle. MAP2 was decreased in the lateral septal nucleus of TAI+Hx rats / however, EPO prevented this loss, and maintained MAP2 density over time. EPO administration elicited an early enhanced expression of EpoR 1day after TAI+Hx compared with a 7-day peak in vehicle controls. Furthermore, EPO reduced IL-1beta to sham levels 2hours after TAI+Hx, concomitant to a decrease in CD68 positive cells at 7 and 14days.CONCLUSIONS:When administered EPO, TAI+Hx rats had improved behavioural and cognitive performance, attenuated white matter damage, resolution of neuronal damage spanning from the axon to the dendrite, and suppressed neuroinflammation, alongside enhanced expression of EpoR. These data provide compelling evidence of EPO's neuroprotective capability. Few benefits were observed when EPO was administered to TAI rats without hypoxia, indicating that EPO's neuroprotective capacity is bolstered under hypoxic conditions, which may be an important consideration when EPO is employed for neuroprotection in the clinic.

Parkinson's disease is characterized by progressive degeneration of substantia nigra (SN) and subsequently loss of the nigrostriatal circuit. Many strategies have attempted to reconstruct this circuit but failed to satisfy clinical trials. The inhibitory environment of the adult CNS and the long distance between the SN and the striatum make true reconstruction difficult. To reconstruct this circuit, we used a transplant-pathway targeting model. Several putative pathway targeting molecules were examined for their ability to direct the growth of axons from a dopaminergic transplant. For a proof-of-principle study, adenoviral and lentiviral encoded glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), GDNF-receptor alpha1 (GFRa1 ), or netrin-1 were injected along the corpus callosum individually or in combination. Treatment with individual factors leads to modest growth with few axons extending the entire length of the pathway. Combined treatment with either GDNF/GFRa1 or GDNF/netrin-1 induced the most robust growth towards the contralateral striatum. GDNF/netrin-1 showed the most consistent growth, with about 80% of the axons growing to the farthest injection site on the contralateral side. To determine if this combination of guidance molecules could be used to reconstruct the nigrostriatal pathway, we examined axon outgrowth from transplants placed within the SN in the 6-0HDA-Iesioned hemiparkinsonian animal model. A pathway from the SN to the striatum was made by injecting lentivirus encoding either GDNF and netrin-1 or GDNF and GFRa1, along the internal capsule, from the SN to the striatum. In another cohort of animals lentivirus encoding GFP was used as a control. A piece of embryonic VM tissue was transplanted into the SN two weeks after lentivirus injections. Compare to the GFP control group, a significantly greater number of dopaminergic axons grew from the transplants towards the striatum ten weeks after transplantation. Retrograde tract tracing showed the dopaminergic axons were from A9 cells in the transplant. Behavioral studies showed a significant reduction in number of amphetamine-induced rotations in GDNF/netrin-1 treated animals. Functional recovery strongly correlated with the number of dopaminergic fibers growing out from the transplant. This study shows that a functional nigrostriatal pathway can be reconstructed by guiding axonal growth from the dopaminergic neurons transplanted in the SN along a preformed growth-supportive pathway extending into the striatum. Refinement of this technique could be beneficial for PD patients in the future.

The neural cell adhesion molecule L1 is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily and it mediates many adhesive interactions during brain development. Mutations in the L1 gene are associated with a spectrum of X-linked neurological disorders known as CRASH or L1 syndrome. The objective of this thesis was to use the zebrafish model to investigate the molecular mechanisms of L1 functions and the pathological effects of its mutations. Zebrafish has two L1 homologs, L1.1 and L1.2. Inhibition of L1.1 expression by antisense morpholino oligonucleotides resulted in phenotypes that showed resemblances to L1 patients. However, knockdown of L1.2 expression did not result in notable neural defects. Furthermore, analysis of the expression pattern of L1.1 has led to the discovery of a novel soluble L1.1 isoform, L1.1s. L1.1s is an alternatively spliced form of L1.1, consisting of the first four Ig-like domains and thus a soluble secreted protein. L1.1 morphants exhibited disorganized brain structures with many having an enlarged fourth/hindbrain ventricle. Further characterization revealed aberrations in ventricular polarity, cell patterning and proliferation and helped differentiate the functions of L1.1 and L1.1s. While L1.1 plays a pivotal role in axonal outgrowth and guidance, L1.1s is crucial to brain ventricle formation. Significantly, L1.1s mRNA rescued many anomalies in the morphant brain, but not the trunk phenotypes. Receptor analysis confirmed that L1.1 undergoes heterophilic interactions with neuropilin-1a (Nrp1a). Peptide inhibition studies demonstrated further the involvement of L1.1s in neuroepithelial cell migration during ventricle formation. In the spinal cord, spinal primary motoneurons expressed exclusively the full-length L1.1, and abnormalities in axonal projections of morphants could be rescued only by L1.1 mRNA. Further studies showed that a novel interaction between the Ig3 domain of L1.1 and Unplugged, the zebrafish muscle specific kinase (MuSK), is crucial to motor axonal growth. Together, these results demonstrate that the different parts of L1.1 contribute to the diverse functions of L1.1 in neural development.

No description available.

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a physically debilitating, emotionally devastating, financially costly, and life-changing condition that afflicts more than 1,000,000 people in the United States alone. Owing to the characteristic neuropathology and low regenerative capacity of the central nervous system, many victims of SCI are left permanently paralyzed. Though the tissue damage caused by the initial insult almost certainly cannot be reversed, intensive research in recent years to elucidate the cellular and molecular events that follows has provided new grounds for optimism. Accordingly, in this dissertation, we present a number of potential treatment strategies aimed to address some of these pathological sequelae seen post-SCI so as to facilitate the regeneration of axons and the recovery of physiological functions. After the initial traumatic insult, a prominent and lasting injury-induced proliferative response occur and results in the development of a gliotic scar that isolates the lesion from the surrounding viable tissue. Although this process aids to prevent the spread of uncontrolled tissue damage, the scar nevertheless acts as a physical barrier to axonal regeneration. Furthermore, cells within the scar are a major source of axon growth-inhibitory molecules such as chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPG) and thus the scar acts concomitantly as a biochemical barrier. Concurrent to all this, inflammatory cells infiltrate the lesion and promote cell death through immunologic activation. Neuronal survival is also threatened from the lack of neurotrophic support caused by axonal severance. Finally, the pathology culminates in the formation of a fluid-filled cyst, which represents a gap that further hinders axonal regrowth. Since regeneration cannot physically occur in the presence of a cavity, we, by employing electrospinning techniques, generated a biocompatible matrix implant that can bridge and direct axonal elongation across the fluid-filled cyst. Given the complex array and scope of pathological sequelae post-SCI, it is generally recognized that a multifaceted approach is required to successfully treat SCI. In view of this, we presented novel approaches by which successful tried and true therapeutic strategies are combined to generate an enhanced matrix. An enzyme as well as a growth factor was incorporated into our matrix implants in order to respectively neutralize CSPGs and provide neurotrophic support. Using in vitro assays, we were able to demonstrate excellent protein bioactivity after incorporation. In vivo experimentation of these enhanced matrices is now ongoing. To address the injury-induced proliferative response, which represents an on-ramp off-ramp obstacle that prevents axonal regeneration onto our matrix implant, we showed how X-irradiation can be utilized to moderate this response by killing dividing cells so as to facilitate a more efficient penetration of regrowing axons into and beyond the gliotic scar. Finally, we demonstrate how a novel pharmacologic agent FTY720 can be used to attenuate the inflammatory response by preventing lymphocytic egress from lymphoid tissues. Collectively, these ideas and experimental results represent novel therapeutic strategies that can be combined in order to bring about meaningful functional recovery after SCI.

An epidemiological shift towards the elderly population has occurred in traumatic brain injury (TBI). Age is believed to be one of the strongest prognostic indicators following TBI. Diffuse axonal injury (DAI), a prevalent feature of TBI, is believed to be the primary cause for much of the morbidity and mortality associated with TBI. The pathobiology associated with DAI is believed to occur in response to the primary injury in a progressive, secondary fashion. Though the injury mechanisms behind DAI have been shown to occur at numerous sites along the axon, recent work suggests that the axon initial segment (AIS) may show specific vulnerability to DAI and be the primary site of axonal pathobiogenesis. Despite its established predilection for injury, the mechanisms responsible for the pathobiology remain largely unclear – particularly with regard to the age. The current study aims to shed light on the mechanisms responsible for injury by investigating structural alterations to the AIS following DAI in young and old mice. To address this question we have used a central fluid percussion injury (cFPI) model to induce mild DAI on 22-month old aged mice and 3-month old young mice at 3-hours and 24-hours survival time. Double-labeling fluorescent immunohistochemistry was used to demonstrate colocalization of ankG, an AIS domain marker, and APP, a marker used to establish traumatic axonal injury (TAI). Qualitative-quantitative observations based on confocal microscopy demonstrated an increase in APP accumulation associated with AIS over time, post-injury. Initial segments displaying APP association consistently showed a significant overall shortening in young and aged groups at both survival times. No significant difference in AIS length was detected between AIS populations of young and aged mice. Qualitative findings, however, suggest that AIS degradation could be more profound with age, which could have implications on neuronal outcome.

Traumatic axonal injury (TAI) is a consistent feature of (TBI) and is responsible for much of its associated morbidity. TAI is now recognized to result from progressive/secondary axonal injury, though much remains unknown in regards to the pathobiology and the long-term consequences of axonal injury. TAI has been described in the perisomatic domain, located within the neocortex following mild TBI, and within this domain has been linked to neuronal recovery, not neuronal cell death in the acute setting. Due to technical limitations, our understanding of the long-term fate of this neuronal population and the mechanisms responsible for permitting neuronal survival, recovery and axon regeneration following injury are unknown. The studies presented in this thesis are centered upon the hypothesis that injury within the perisomatic domain is unique, and may allow for enhanced neuronal recovery and axonal regeneration. To address many of these questions, we have utilized a novel model of diffuse brain injury in mice, allowing for the use of transgenic mice to overcome previous limitations in the study of TAI. To address this hypothesis, we first assessed the impact of genetic deletion of cyclophilin D (CypD), a regulator of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP), upon TAI within the perisomatic domain. Via this approach it was determined that CypD deletion reduced the number of injured axons by ~50%, indicating that CypD and mPTP formation contribute to TAI in the perisomatic domain. Next, using a fluorescent-based approach, we assessed the temporospatial events associated with TAI, acutely. Here it was determined that the axon initial segment (AIS) is uniquely susceptible to TAI following mild TBI (mTBI) and injury within this domain progresses rapidly to axon disconnection. Last we assessed the long-term fate of axotomized neurons and their associated axonal processes. We report that over a chronic time frame, TAI induces no overt cell death, instead results in significant neuronal atrophy with the simultaneous activation of a somatic program of axon regeneration and recovery of the remaining axonal processes. Taken together, the findings of this work reveal that TAI results in a unique axonal injury that results in a persistent axon regenerative attempt.

The ankyrins comprise a family of proteins serving as components of the membrane cytoskeleton, and participate in a diverse set of associations with multiple binding partners including the cytoplasmic domains of transporters, ion channels, some classes of receptors, and cell adhesion proteins. Moreover, evidence is accumulating that ankyrin participates in defining functionally distinct subcellular regions. The complex functional and structural roles of ankyrins indicate they are likely to play essential roles in the pathology of traumatic axonal injury. The current study examined changes in ankyrin-G expression following a moderate central fluid percussion injury administered to adult rats. At 1d, 3d, and 7d postinjury (or following a sham control injury), protein levels of ankyrin-G in the corpus callosum and cerebral cortex were assessed using Western Blot analysis. Three immunopositive bands were identified in both brain regions as 220,212, and 75 kD forms of ankyrin-G. Time-dependent changes in ankyrin-G were observed in the corpus callosum. At 1d injury-induced elevations were observed in the callosal 220 kD (+147% relative to sham levels) and in the 212 kD (+73%) forms of ankyrin-G, but in both cases the expression decreased to control levels by 3d and 7d. In contrast, the 75 kD form showed moderate increases at 1d postinjury, but was significantly below control levels at 3d (-54%) and at 7d (-41%). Ankyrin-G expression in the cerebral cortex was only slightly affected by the injury, with a significant decrease in the `220 kD form occurring between 1d and 3d. These data suggest that the 220 and 212 kD changes probably represent postinjury proteolytic fragments derived from intact ankyrin-G isoforms of 480 andor 270 kD, while the 75 kD effects are likely breakdown products of intact 190 kD ankyrin-G. These results were discussed as they relate to prior findings of differential vulnerabilities of callosal myelinated and unmyelinated axons to injury. In this context, the 220,212 kD changes may reflect pathology within myelinated axons, and alterations to the 75 kD form may reflect more persistent pathology affecting unmyelinated callosal fibers.

La mise en place des projections axonales est une étape clé du développement des circuits de la moelle épinière qui contrôle les fonctions motrices de l’individu. Il s’agit d’un processus complexe impliquant des mécanismes de spécification des neurones moteurs et des signalisations multiples assurant le guidage spécifique de chaque axone jusqu’à sa cible d’innervation. Les Sémaphorines de classe 3 (Sema3) sont des molécules secrétées dans l’environnement qui participent notamment au guidage des axones moteurs de la moelle épinière. De manière surprenante, les motoneurones expriment également eux-mêmes des Sema3. Mon équipe a déjà montré que l’expression intrinsèque de Sema3A par les motoneurones module leur sensibilité au Sema3A de l’environnement. Ce processus s’effectue par une régulation du niveau de son récepteur à la surface du cône de croissance, la structure terminale de l’axone responsable de la perception des signaux de guidage extracellulaires (Moret et al., 2007). Quelle est la portée de ce nouveau mécanisme modulatoire et peut-il être généralisé à d’autres membres de la famille des Sema3 exprimés dans les motoneurones ? Mon travail de thèse a permis de mettre en évidence ce rôle modulatoire d’un autre membre de la famille Sema3 : Sema3C, dons l’expression est restreinte à une sous-population de motoneurones, en plus d’une expression environnementale. Par des expériences de gain et de perte de fonction dans l’embryon de poulet, nous avons montré que l’expression motoneuronale de Sema3C module de manière différentielle ses deux récepteurs du niveau de récepteur entraînent une modulation de réponse à Sema3C mais aussi à Sema3A et Sema3F, qui se fixent respectivement sur Nrp1 et Nrp2. De plus, nous avons étudié la portée de ce mécanisme de modulation dans l’innervation des membres de l’embryon de poulet, ce modèle permettant l’étude des projections motoneuronales dans un environnement riche en Sema3. Ainsi, l’analyse in vivo des embryons de poulet pour lesquels l’expression intrinsèque de Sema3C dans les motoneurones a été manipulée a permis de montrer que la modulation de réponse aux Sema 3 de l’environnement contribue au positionnement stéréotypé des projection motrices dans le membre antérieur. Ce travail permet donc de proposer que l’expression d’un code de Sema 3 par les motoneurones confère aux différentes sous-populations une sensibilité spécifique aux gradients de Sema 3 présents dans l’environnement et assure ainsi une trajectoire stéréotypée des axones moteurs jusque dans leur territoire cible. / During spinal circuit’s development, the implementation of axonal projections is a key step as it ensures the integrity of motor functions. This complex process implicates several mechanisms such as motoneuton specification and various signaling cascades in order to guide specifically each axon toward its innervation target. Class 3 Semaphorins (Sema3s) are chemotactic cues, secreted in the environment, and contributing to the guidance of spinal motor axons. Surprisingly, these Sema3s are also expressed by motoneurons themselves. Previous work in our team showed that intrinsic expression of Sema 3A. This process arises from the regulation of its receptor availability at the growth cone surface, the terminal end of the axon that enables sensing of extracellular signals (Moret et al., 2007). But in what extent can we generalize this mechanism to other members of the Sema3 family, and what impact could it have, in vivo, during development? My PhD work revealed the modulatory role of another Sema3, Sema3C, expressed in a restricted motoneuronal subpopulation as well as in the environment. By again and loss of function experiments in the chick embryo, we showed that motoneuronal expression of Sema3C modulates differentially its two Neuropilin receptor level, Nrp1 and, Nrp2, at the growth cone surface. These variations of receptors’ availability lead to a response modulation to extrinsic Sema3, but also to Sema3A and Sema3F, that bind to Nrp1 and Nrp2, respectively. Moreover, we analyzed the role of such modulation mechanisms during limb innervation in the chick embryo. Indeed, this model enables the study of motor axon growth in a complex Semaphorin environment. In vivo analysis of chick embryos after intrinsic Sema3C manipulations revealed that response modulation to environmental Sema3s takes part in the stereotyped positioning motor axon projections in the forelimb. Hence, this Study suggest a model in which the expression of a Semaphorin code by motoneurons enables specific subpopulations to modulate their sensitivity Sema3 gradients expressed in their environment, thus contributing to the stereotyped trajectories of motor axon projections towards their final target.

Le système nerveux et le système vasculaire montrent de grandes similitudes notamment au niveau anatomique. Il est maintenant communément admis que des membres des quatre grandes familles de molécules de guidage axonal Sémaphorines, Ephrines, Nétrines et Slits et leurs récepteurs sont également impliqué dans la mise en place du réseau vasculaire, mais la situation inverse n'était pas aussi claire lorsque j'ai débuté ma thèse. Cette thèse s'intéresse au rôle chez la souris de deux molécules de mise en place du système vasculaire VEGFR2 et Synectine dans le contexte du guidage axonal. Nous avons ainsi montré que ces deux molécules sont importantes pour le guidage de différentes populations d'axones par la molécule de guidage axonal Sémaphorine 3E (Séma3E). Dans une première étude, nous avons montré que VEGFR2 est important pour la mise en place du faisceau subiculo-mamillaire in vivo indépendamment de son ligand vasculaire habituel VEGF. En effet, dans ces neurones VEGFR2 agit au sein d'un complexe récepteur à Séma3E, composé de PlexinD1, Neuropilin1, et VEGFR2. Ainsi, la liaison de Séma3E au complexe récepteur entraine l'activation de VEGFR2 qui transduit alors une signalisation promotrice de croissance axonale en activant la voie PI3K/Akt. Dans une seconde étude, nous avons montré que Synectine est important in vivo pour la mise en place de la commissure antérieure, un autre faisceau axonal exprimant le récepteur à Séma3E, PlexinD1. De plus, nous avons montré in vitro que Synectine est nécessaire à la réponse inhibitrice de croissance induite par Séma3E dans les neurones du cortex latéral piriforme qui correspondent aux neurones projetant dans la commissure antérieure. En impliquant Synectine et VEGFR2 dans le guidage axonal, les résultats présentés dans cette thèse mettent donc en avant que si le système vasculaire utilise des molécules du système nerveux pour son développement, le système nerveux peut également utiliser des molécules du système vasculaire pour la mise en place de son réseau neuronal. / Important similarities exist between the vascular and the nervous systems, both at anatomical and molecular levels. There is now clear evidence that members of all four classical families of axon guidance molecules (Ephrins, Netrins, Slits, and Semaphorins) and their cognate receptors are implicated in vascular patterning. Here we present evidence for the reverse situation in wich two vascular molecules, VEGFR2 and Synectin, are implicated in axon patterning of two major axon tract in vivo, and in their response to the axon guidance molecule Semaphorin 3E in vitro.