Chez les espèces ayant une symétrie morphologique bilatérale, les connections entre la gauche et la droite au sein du système nerveux sont appelées commissures. Le développement de nouveaux circuits commissuraux et la modification des circuits existants ont accompagné l’émergence de caractéristiques neurobiologiques essentielles. D’un point de vue moléculaire, le guidage des commissures dépend de couplage ligand-récepteur tels que Netrin-1/DCC, responsable de l’attraction des axones commissuraux, et tel que Slit/Robo3, responsable de la répulsion des axones ayant traversé la ligne médiane. Plusieurs commissures ne se développent pas en absence d’un unique récepteur, le Robo3, contestant ainsi une présumée redondance moléculaire. Tout d’abord, il est impérial de caractériser le mécanisme moléculaire sous-jacent à cette fonction unique de Robo3 chez les mammifères et au cours de l’évolution. Ensuite, nous visons à extrapoler vers une indentification de nouvelles molécules impliquées dans le développement commissural. Nos travaux ouvrent la voie à une réévaluation du contrôle développemental assuré par Robo3 au sein du système commissural des mammifères. Par biochimie fonctionnelle, nous avons observé que Robo3 du mammifère ni se lie, ni ne réagit aux slits. Par ailleurs, Robo3 interagit avec DCC, ce qui produit une phosphorylation intracellulaire sélective de Robo3 par l’entremise de la Nétrine-1. Cette dernière n’a pas d’effet attractif sur les neurones pontiques dépourvus de Robo3; phénomène qui peut être rétabli chez des souris Robo3 -/- par l’expression de Robo3 mammifère, mais non par l’expression de Robo3 non-mammifère. En conclusion, nous démontrons que la fonction de Robo3 a été spécifiquement convertie lors de l’évolution des mammifères. Une telle diversification mécanistique dérivée de l’évolution moléculaire d’un gène spécifique est susceptible d’être à la base de la précision du contrôle des mouvements volontaires chez les mammifères. / In species with bilateral morphological symmetry, connections between left and right in the nervous system are called commissures. The development of novel commissural circuits and modification of existing ones have accompanied the emergence of key neurobiological features in vertebrate evolution. Molecularly, guidance of commissures relies on ligand-receptor pairs such as Netrin-1/DCC mediating attraction of commissural axons to, and Slit/Robo mediated repulsion of post-crossing axons away from the midline. Arguing against assumed molecular redundancy, many commissures fail to develop in absence of a single receptor, Robo3. The objective of the current work is threefold: first, it sets out to characterize the molecular mechanisms underlying this unique function of Robo3 in mammals and evolutionarily across species. Secondly, we aim to extrapolate towards the identification of new molecules important for commissure development to lastly functionally evaluate some of these putative novel commissural signaling pathways. Our work paves the way to a complete reevaluation of Robo3-mediated developmental control in mammalian commissural systems. Using functional biochemistry, we find that mammalian Robo3 does neither bind nor respond to Slits. Moreover, Robo3 interacts with DCC and Netrin-1 selectively triggers intracellular phosphorylation of mammalian Robo3. Netrin-1 fails to attract pontine neurons lacking Robo3 and attraction can be restored in Robo3-/- mice by expression of mammalian, but not nonmammalian, Robo3. Conclusively, we show that Robo3 function has been uniquely converted during mammalian evolution. Such mechanistic diversification through molecular evolution in one specific gene likely underlies fine-tuning of mammalian voluntary movement control.

Mild Traumatic Brain Injuries (mTBIs) are non-penetrating brain injuries that do not result in gross pathological lesions, yet they may cause a spectrum of cognitive and behavioral deficits. mTBI has been placed in the spotlight because of increased awareness of blast induced and sports-related concussions, but the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are poorly understood. Several studies have implicated neuronal membrane poration and ion channel dysfunction as the primary mechanism of injury. We hypothesized that injury forces utilize mechanically-sensitive, transmembrane integrin proteins, which are coupled to the neuronal cytoskeleton (CSK) and distribute injury forces within the intracellular space, disrupting CSK organization and reducing intercellular neuronal functionality. To test this, magnetic beads were coated with adhesive protein, allowing them to bind to integrins in the neuronal membrane in vitro. To apply forces to the neurons via the bound beads, we built custom magnetic tweezers and demonstrated that focal adhesions (FACs) formed at the site of bead binding. We showed that the beads were coupled to the CSK via integrins by measuring the disparate adhesion of the soma and neurite to their underlying substrate. The soma also required more force to detach than neurites, correlating with the FAC density between each neuronal microcompartment and substrate. We then utilized the magnetic tweezers to test whether beads bound to integrins injured neurons more than beads that bound to neurons nonspecifically. Integrin-bound beads injured neurons more often and the injury was characterized by the formation of focal swellings along axons, reminiscent of Diffuse Axonal Injury. While integrin-bound beads initiated swellings throughout neurons, beads bound nonspecifically only caused local injury where beads were attached to neurons. To demonstrate the electrical dysfunction of integrin-mediated injury forces, we adapted Magnetic Twisting Cytometry to simultaneously apply injury forces to beads bound to multiple cells within neuronal networks in vitro. The formation of focal swellings resulted in reduced axonal electrical activity and decreased coordinated network activity. These data demonstrate that the mechanical insult associated with mTBI is propagated into neurons via integrins, initiating maladaptive CSK remodeling that is linked to impaired electrical function, providing novel insight into the underlying mechanisms of mTBI. / Engineering and Applied Sciences

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is linked to a diverse range of diffuse pathological damage for which there is a severe lack of therapeutic options. A major limitation to drug development is the inability to identify causal mechanisms that link head trauma to the multitude of secondary injury cascades that underlie neuropathology. To elucidate these relationships, it is important to consider how physical forces are transmitted through the brain across multiple spatial scales ranging from the whole head to the sub-cellular level. In doing so, the mechanical behavior of the brain is typically characterized solely by its material properties and biological structure. Alternatively, forces transmitted through distinct cellular and extracellular structures have been shown to influence physiological processes in multiple cell types through the transduction of mechanical forces into cellular chemical responses. As an essential component of various biological processes, these mechanotransduction events are regulated by mechanical cues directed through extracellular matrix (ECM) and cell adhesion molecules (CAM) to mechanosensitive intra-cellular structures such as focal adhesions (FAs). Using a series of in vitro models, we have implicated FAs in the cellular mechanism of traumatic axonal injury by showing that forces directed through these structures potentiate injury levels and, moreover, that inhibition of FA-mediated signaling pathways may be neuroprotective. In addition, we show that localizing trauma forces through specific brain ECM results in differential injury rates, further implicating mechanosensitive cell-ECM linkages in the mechanism of TBI. Therefore, we show that FAs play a major role in axonal injury at low strain magnitudes indicating that cellular mechanotransduction may be an important mechanism underlying the initiation of cell and sub-cellular injuries ultimately responsible for the diffuse pathological damage and clinical symptoms observed in diffuse axonal injury. Furthermore, since these mechanisms may present the earliest events in the complex sequelae associated with TBI, they also represent potential therapeutic opportunities. / Engineering and Applied Sciences

La nutrition au cours de la période postnatale précoce programme l’activité de l’axe somatotrope à l’âge adulte (GH/IGF-1). Une altération de la nutrition chez les souriceaux au cours de la lactation altère la croissance staturo-pondérale de façon permanente et augmente leurs susceptibilités à développer des pathologies cardio-métaboliques à l’âge adulte. La restriction au cours de la lactation induit une diminution des taux plasmatiques en IGF-1 et en leptine. Ceci est associé à une diminution transitoire de l’innervation de l’éminence médiane par les neurones GHRH, ce qui induit une hypoplasie hypophysaire permanente en cellules somatotropes. Durant ma thèse, j’ai étudié l’impact de la nutrition périnatale sur la mise en place de l’axe somatotrope, notamment les mécanismes impliqués dans la régulation du développement des neurones GHRH. Les cultures d’explants de noyaux arqués issus de souriceaux normalement nourris indiquent que l’IGF-1 stimule de façon préférentielle la croissance axonale des neurones GHRH par l'intermédiaire des voies PI3K/AKT et MAPK. La leptine présenterait quant à elle un effet plus global sur les neurones du noyau arqué, stimulant la croissance axonale des neurones GHRH et des neurones orexigène à NPY/AgRP. Les neurones GHRH issus de souris restreintes sont quant à eux résistants à la stimulation de la croissance axonale par l’IGF-1 ou la leptine. Concernant l’IGF-I, cette résistance est associée à une altération des capacités de phosphorylation de la voie PI3K/AKT, tandis que celles de l’IGF-1R et de la voie MAPK ne sont pas altérées. / Nutrition during lactation programs the activity of the somatotropic axis (GH/IGF-1). Alteration of nutrition during the early postnatal period in mice induces increased susceptibility to develop cardiovascular and metabolic pathologies later in life. Nutritional restriction during lactation permanently alters growth of mice. Ten days old restricted pups present decreased plasmatic level of IGF-1 and Leptin. They also present a transient alteration of median eminence innervation by GHRH neurons, which induce a permanent somatotroph cells (GH) hypoplasia in pituitary. The aim of my thesis was to study the impact of nutrition during the perinatal period on the programming of the somatotropic axis, notably the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of GHRH neuronal development. In vitro cultures of arcuate nucleus explants of hypothalamus from normally fed pups indicate that IGF-1 preferentially stimulates axonal growth of GHRH neurons by its signaling pathways PI3K/AKT and MAPK. Leptin present a more global effect and is able to stimulate axonal growth of arcuate nucleus neurons, including GHRH and AgRP neurons. GHRH neurons from restricted pups are resistant to the stimulation of axonal growth by IGF-1 or leptin. Regarding IGF-1, this resistance is associated with an alteration of phosphorylation capacities of the PI3K/AKT pathway, whereas those from IGF-1R and MAPK are not altered.

Le bon fonctionnement du système nerveux dépend de la précision avec laquelle sont formées les connexions synaptiques lors du développement embryonnaire et post-natal. La navigation des cônes de croissance vers leurs cibles dépend en dernier lieu de la réorganisation dynamique du réseau d’actine et de microtubules (MTs). Historiquement considérés comme les acteurs principaux de l'élongation axonale, les MTs ont été plus récemment impliqués dans des processus d'orientation du cône de croissance et de guidage axonal, montrant ainsi le rôle capital que les protéines associées aux microtubules (MAPs) peuvent jouer dans la navigation axonale. Notre équipe s’intéresse aux protéines appartenant à un sous-groupe des protéines AAA (pour ATPases Associated with diverse cellular Activities) comprenant trois enzymes de cassure des MTs : la spastin, la katanin et la fidgetin, ainsi que deux protéines apparentées à cette dernière, les fidgetin-like 1 et 2 L’analyse fonctionnelle de fidgetin-like 1 et katanin chez le poisson zèbre a permis de montrer le rôle différentiel de ces protéines dans le guidage axonal des Neurones Moteurs Spinaux (NMS). Finalement, nous avons évalué l’impact d’une modification post-traductionnelle de la tubuline, la polyglutamylation, sur le développement axonal des NMS et l’activité de cassure des microtubules par katanin. Notre étude de deux enzymes de polyglutamylation neuronales, TTLL6 et TTLL11, a mis en évidence le rôle différentiel de ces deux enzymes dans la navigation axonale des NMS, ainsi que l’influence de la polyglutamylation par TTLL6, mais pas par TTLL11, sur l’activité de cassure des MTs par katanin dans ce processus biologique. / The formation of a functional nervous system depends on the accuracy of its network wiring during embryonic and postnatal development. Axon outgrowth and navigation ultimately rely on the reorganization of the microtubule (MT) and actin networks. Historically considered as key players in axon extension, MTs have been gradually shown to play an instructive role in axon guidance decisions, which sheds new light on the potential involvement of MT-associated proteins (MAPs) in these navigational processes. Our team program aims at deciphering the differential role and functional redundancy of a few neuronal MT-associated ATPases, including the MT-severing spastin, katanin and the newly discovered fidgetin-like 1, in SMN axon outgrowth. During my PhD, I have first participated in the functional analysis of fidgetin-like 1, which has revealed that this ATPase controls SMN axon outgrowth via the regulation of MT plus-end dynamics. My main PhD project focused on the involvement of katanin in SMN development, which has established the pivotal role of this MT-severing enzyme in SMN axon targeting. Furthermore, I have explored the potential involvement of a MT post-translational modification, the tubulin polyglutamylation, in SMN axon outgrowth and navigation, and its influence on katanin MT-severing activity. Interestingly, my analysis of two neuronal MT polyglutamylases, TTLL6 and TTLL11, shows that these two enzymes differentially affect SMN axon outgrowth and pathfinding, and reveals the exclusive impact of TTLL6-mediated polyglutamylation on katanin MT-severing activity during this developmental process.

Les mouvements locomoteurs rythmiques nécessitent l’intervention de circuits neuronaux qui coordonnent l’activité motrice des deux parties du corps. Ces circuits sont formés majoritairement par les projections des interneurones commissuraux de la moelle épinière. Des facteurs de guidage comme la Nétrine, les Slits jouent un rôle fondamental dans la mise en place de ces projections. Une étude a également montré qu’une signalisation impliquant le récepteur Neuropiline2 (Nrp2) des signaux Sémaphorines de la classe 3 (Sema3), participe au guidage de ces projections et cela uniquement après la traversée de la ligne médiane (Zou et al. 2000). Ma thèse porte sur l’étude fonctionnelle d’un ligand de la Nrp2, la Sema3B dans le développement de ce système de projections. J’ai analysé une souris invalidée pour Sema3B et observé de nombreuses erreurs de trajectoires après la traversée de la ligne médiane. Je me suis ensuite intéressée aux mécanismes sous-jacents au gain de réponse : par une approche pharmacologique et biochimique j’ai pu montrer que le signal de la plaque du plancher inhibe une activité de dégradation dépendante de la calpaine1. L’inhibition de cette voie conduit à la stabilisation d’un co-récepteur de la Nrp2, la Plexine A1 dont l’expression est très faible dans les axones n’ayant pas encore traversé la ligne médiane. Cette régulation permet alors l’assemblage d’un complexe récepteur fonctionnel de Sema3B, comprenant cette Plexine associée à la Nrp2 au niveau des cônes de croissance. J’ai identifié la molécule d’adhérence NrCAM, et le facteur neurotrophique GDNF comme étant les facteurs de la plaque du plancher déclencheurs de la réponse / Rhythmic locomotor movements require neuronal circuits ensuring left-right coordination. Spinal commissural projections participate to left-right coordination of limb movements by mediating reciprocal inhibition in synchrony. Extensive research of the mechanisms governing the formation of commissural pathways focused on dorsally-located spinal commissural neurons, establishing a fundamental role for multiple guidance cues derived for the midline and surrounding tissues, including Netrins, Slits and various morphogens. Semaphorin (Sema2)/Neuropilin-2 (Nrp2) signaling has been proposed to contribute to the guidance of commissural projections in the spinal cord at the post- but not pre-crossing stage (Zou et al, 2000). My PhD project aimed at analyzing the role of a Nrp2 ligand, Sema3B, in the guidance of spinal commissural projections, whose expression is dynamic and restricted to some territories, including the floor plate in which axons cross the midline. Analysis of Sema3B null mice showed that the loss of Sema3B induces a range of guidance defects of post-crossing commissural pathways. I investigated the underlying mechanisms and found that the floor plate signal induces through blockade of a calpain 1-dependant pathway the stabilization of the Nrp2 co-receptor Plexin-A1, and enable the assembly of Nrp2/Plexin-A1 sub-units into functional complexes for Sema3B in post-crossing commissural growth cones. I identified the cell adhesion molecule NrCAM and the neurotrophic factor GDNF as being the floor-platederived signals triggering the gain of response

Les virus adéno-associés (AAVs) font partie des vecteurs les plus efficaces pour le transfert de gène, en particulier dans la rétine. Ils sont utilisés aussi bien pour des études biologiques que pour la thérapie génique. Malgré cela, il reste encore des barrières qui limitent leur utilisation. Nous proposons ici d’utiliser une technique d’évolution dirigée pour surmonter ces barrières et améliorer l’efficacité des AAVs en tant que vecteurs de gènes. Dans un premier temps, nous avons créé trois librairies virales hautement diversifiées basées sur l’AAV2. Ces librairies étaient constituées de capsides modifiées aléatoirement pour leur donner de nouvelles propriétés. Nous avons ensuite réalisé deux types de sélections. D’une part, nous avons sélectionné nos librairies virales dans le système visuel de la souris pour obtenir une capside capable de transport axonal antérograde trans-synaptique afin de pouvoir étudier simultanément l’activité et la connectivité de réseaux neuronaux. Cette sélection a fortement convergée vers une capside nommée AAV2-7mD, dont la capacité de transport axonal antérograde trans-synaptique est plus efficace que les AAVs 1 et 2. D’autre part, nous avons sélectionné nos librairies virales directement sur des explants de maculas de rétine humaine afin découvrir une capside capable de traverser la membrane limitante interne de la macula humaine. Ceci a pour but d’avoir un vecteur efficace pour des traitements de thérapie génique par voie intra-vitréenne. Cette librairie a commencé à converger mais nous sommes toujours en attente du dernier cycle de sélection. Nous traitons donc dans cette thèse des résultats de deux évolutions dirigées sur l’AAV2 afin de créer des vecteurs de gènes plus performants dans le système visuel. / Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are among the most efficient vectors for gene transfer, particularly in the retina. They are used for asking biological questions as well as for gene therapy. Nonetheless, some barriers are still restraining their use. Here, we used a directed evolution method to overcome those barriers and improve the efficiency of AAVs for gene transfer. First, we created three highly diversified viral libraries based on AAV2. Those libraries were based on randomly modified capsids displaying new properties. Then, we did two types of selections. On one hand, we selected our libraries in the retinofugal pathway in order to obtain a capsid with enhanced axonal anterograde trans-synaptic transport capacities, so we could study simultaneously the activity and the connectivity of neuronal networks between the retina and the brain. This selection converged strongly toward a new capsid, named AAV2-7mD, with enhanced axonal anterograde trans-synaptic transport capacities compared to AAV1 and AAV2. On the other hand, we directly selected our viral libraries on human macular explants, to select capsids capable of crossing the human macular inner limiting membrane. Such a capsid would be very useful for retinal gene therapy via intravitreal injections. This library started to converge but we are still waiting to complete the last cycle of selection. In this thesis we discuss the results of these two directed evolution studies on AAV2 to create enhanced gene delivery vectors in the visual system.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第22886号 / 医博第4680号 / 新制||医||1048(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 髙橋 良輔, 教授 井上 治久, 教授 伊佐 正 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

This study examined the precision of central fiber growth in a subpopulation of dorsal root ganglion neurons in developing mouse spinal cord. Immunohistochemical techniques using a monospecific, polyclonal antiserum to mouse adenosine deaminase (ADA) were utilized to label a population of primary sensory afferents that have been found to exclusively innervate laminae I and II of the dorsal horn in adult mice. Initial growth of ADA-immunoreactive (ADA-IR) primary afferents occurred very early in development, embryonic day 10 (E10), a time coincident with the earliest settling time of dorsal root ganglion neurons. Adenosine deaminase immunoreactive primary afferents were observed throughout the cross-sectional area of the primordial dorsal funiculus (DF) as early as E10. Immunostained fibers remained quiescent in the DF during its growth and separation into the tract of Lissauer and dorsal column pathway. By E15, the two pathways had formed and ADA-IR fibers were observed exclusively in the tract of Lissauer. This segregation of fibers remained throughout development and reflected the adult pattern. Growth was reinitiated at E16 when the fibers advanced into the dorsal horn and proceeded directly to laminae I and II mimicking their adult distribution. Exuberant fiber growth was not detected throughout their development. These results strongly suggest that ADA-IR fibers exhibit precise fiber guidance to a preferred pathway, the tract of Lissauer, and accurate laminar innervation of the dorsal horn.

Trimethyltin (TMT) is known to produce substantial damage to the hippocampal formation. It also destroys neurons within the entorhinal cortex, thereby causing degeneration of perforant path afferents that terminate in the outer molecular layer (OML) of the dentate gyrus. Surgical destruction of the entorhinal cortex also causes the perforant path to degenerate. This leads to reactive synpatogenesis (axonal sprouting) of septal afferents to the dentate gyrus. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether administration of 6 mg/kg of TMT by gavage to rats would cause axonal sprouting within the septodentate projection. A histochemical stain for acetycholinesterase (AChE) was used. Compared to control subjects rats given TMT exhibited significantly denser AChE staining in the dentate OML. This is putative indication of reactive synaptogenesis within the cholinergic projection to this layer of the dentate and is somewhat surprising because other neurotoxins, such as lead and ethanol, that affect neurons within the hippocampal formation reduce the capacity for reactive synaptogenesis in response to lesions of the entorhinal cortex.