La fitorremediación es una técnica de descontaminación de ecosistemas que aprovecha la capacidad de las plantas para acumular sustancias tóxicas en su interior sin que afecten severamente a su ciclo vital. Dicha técnica presenta un bajo impacto medioambiental, convirtiéndose en una alternativa a los métodos clásicos, más agresivos y costosos. En lo referente a metales pesados, las plantas inducen la síntesis intracelular de fitoquelatinas (PC), ligandos tiólicos que complejan los metales y los almacenan en orgánulos celulares de bajo metabolismo como las vacuolas. A pesar de las investigaciones realizadas hasta la fecha, el mecanismo de actuación de las fitoquelatinas no está totalmente establecido, incluida la secuencia de formación y la estequiometria final de los complejos PC-M. Por esta razón, resulta de gran interés estudiar estos procesos de complejación, pues sus conclusiones pueden ayudar a entender la fitorremediación y a optimizar su aplicación. Las investigaciones recogidas en esta tesis se sustentan -como metodología básica- en el análisis quimiométrico mediante MCR-ALS de los datos obtenidos de valoraciones complexométricas registradas por técnicas electroanalíticas, concluyendo con la proposición de modelos de complejación para el sistema en estudio. La elección del plomo como metal complejante se debe a su alta toxicidad y dispersión en el medio ambiente, así como por suponer un paso más en el uso de dicha metodología, pues el estudio de los sistemas PC/Pb(II) presentan problemas que la dificultan. Estos problemas son, principalmente, el desplazamiento lateral de las señales voltamperométricas que produce un decrecimiento en la linealidad de los datos obtenidos, y la presencia de señales anódicas que favorece un fuerte solapamiento entre los picos de las diferentes especies químicas; ambos problemas comprometen la aplicación del método MCR-ALS y el correcto examen de los resultados. El objetivo de esta tesis adquiere así una doble vertiente. Por un lado, para solucionar dichos problemas y, de alguna forma, ampliar la aplicabilidad de MCR-ALS a eventuales sistemas más complejos, se estudian nuevas adaptaciones metodológicas (análisis MCR-ALS de matrices espectro-voltamperométricas), herramientas (programa shiftfit, que corrige el desplazamiento de potencial de las señales voltamperométricas) y metodologías experimentales (uso de electrodos alternativos al de mercurio). Por otro lado, se procura la consecución de resultados para los propios sistemas PC/Pb(II) estudiados, es decir, la determinación de modelos de complejación lo bastante completos y sólidos para servir de apoyo a los resultados de los estudios in vivo o in vitro. Los trabajos publicados y la explicación de los resultados están organizados en tres bloques: • El primer bloque (artículo 11.1) recoge la aproximación inicial al estudio de la complejación de fitoquelatinas y ligandos relacionados con plomo utilizando la metodología básica. Los resultados ponen de relieve la relativa solvencia del procedimiento, así como el verdadero alcance de los problemas que se describen en el capítulo 5. • El segundo bloque recopila los resultados de la aplicación de las nuevas metodologías y herramientas propuestas para solucionar las insuficiencias o ambigüedades de los modelos de complejación obtenidos en el artículo anterior. Estas metodologías son el análisis quimiométrico conjunto de valoraciones registradas por polarografía y dicroísmo circular (11.2), la formulación del programa shiftfit que corrige el movimiento lateral de señales polarográficas, es decir, la falta de un valor fijo del potencial de pico (11.3) y, finalmente, el uso del electrodo de película de bismuto (BiFE) con la intención de minimizar el solapamiento que producen las señales anódicas (11.4). • Tras la aplicación de estas metodologías a sistemas sencillos, en el tercer bloque se aplican a sistemas con plomo (11.5 y 11.6), incluyendo la comparación de los diferentes modelos de complejación obtenidos en los artículos 11.1 y 11.5 para el sistema PC3/Pb(II). / Phytoremediation is a decontamination technique that takes profit by the plants ability to accumulate toxic substances without affecting severely their vital cycles. This technique presents the advantatges of being cheap and non-destructive to ecological systems. Regarding heavy metals, plants induce the intracellular synthesis of phytochelatins (PC), Cys-rich polypeptides that complex metals and storage them in cellular organelles of limited metabolism as vacuoles. Despite the research achieved to date, the mechanism of actuation of phytochelatins is not entirely established, including the sequence of formation and the final stoichiometry of the PC-M complexes. By this reason, it is of great interest to study these complexation processes, reaching conclusions that would be able to help the optimization of phytoremediation. The investigations collected in this doctoral thesis are held -as basic methodology- in the chemometric analysis through MCR-ALS of the data obtained from complexometric titrations carried out by voltammetric techniques. This methodology concludes with the proposition of complexation models for the systems under study, but when lead is used as complexing metal, PC/Pb(II) systems present problems that make it more difficult. Mainly, these problems are the lateral movement of the voltammetric signals (producing a decrease in the linearity of the data), and the presence of anodic signals that propitiate a strong overlapping between peaks of different chemical species; both troubles compromise the MCR-ALS application and the correct investigation of the results. To solve the aforementioned problems -and that way to increase the applicability of MCR-ALS to more complex systems-, some new tools have been applied for the first time: • Methodologic adaptations as the MCR-ALS simultaneous analysis of spectro- and electrochemical data (row-wise CD-DPP augmented matrices) to differenciate real chemical species from physicochemical or kinetic phenomena of the diffusion layer. • Chemometric programs as shiftfit that corrects the potential shift of the polarographic signals to obtain a matrix of corrected voltammograms with an increased linearity. • The use of the bismuth film electrode (BiFE) for complexation studies, to minimize the overlapping produced by the anodic signals.

A citricultura, introduzida no Brasil na época da colonização e explorada comercialmente a partir dos anos 30 do século passado, é um setor de grande importância para o agronegócio brasileiro. Atualmente, o Brasil detém 50% da produção mundial de laranja e cerca de 85% de toda exportação mundial, representando uma captação de divisas de cerca de 2,5 bilhões de dólares por ano, devido principalmente à exportação do suco de laranja. Apesar do suco ser o principal produto de exportação da citricultura, vários subprodutos com valor comercial são obtidos durante seu processo de produção, tais como os óleos essenciais cítricos. Esses subprodutos localizam-se na casca da fruta e são obtidos durante o processo de extração do suco de laranja por prensagem a frio. Devido ao uso intensivo de pesticidas na citricultura e que muitas vezes se acumula na casca da fruta é comum à obtenção de óleos essenciais com resíduos de pesticidas, o que reduz seu preço de mercado internacional e limita sua inserção em mercados exigentes como o Europeu, Japonês e Americano, por exemplo. Este trabalho propõe o desenvolvimento de metodologias eletroanalíticas para a determinação de alguns pesticidas amplamente utilizados na citricultura brasileira e que têm sido encontrados nos óleos essenciais produzidos pelas indústrias de processamento. Inicialmente, foram realizados testes para avaliação da eletroatividade de três pesticidas (piridafention, cihexatina e bromopropilato) amplamente utilizados no Brasil, mas que são proibidos na maioria dos países importadores, sendo, portanto, de importância estratégica. Utilizando-se a técnica de voltametria cíclica verificou-se que o piridafention apresenta resposta sobre o eletrodo compósito de grafite-poliuretana (GPU), a cihexatina apresentou eletroatividade sobre o eletrodo de filme de bismuto e o bromopropilato não foi eletroativo nas superfícies eletródicas testadas. Varreduras realizadas com voltametria cíclica mostraram que o piridafention apresenta um pico de redução em -0,80 V (vs. EECS) sobre eletrodo compósito de GPU em meio ácido (tampão Britton-Robinson 0,1 mol L-1) com características de processo irreversível. Em seguida, desenvolveu-se uma metodologia eletroanalítica, utilizando a técnica de voltametria de onda quadrada (SWV), com a otimização do pH da solução (1,0) e demais parâmetros da SWV como a frequência (80 s-1), amplitude do pulso (50 mV) e incremento de varredura (ΔEi = 5 mV). Curvas analíticas foram obtidas no intervalo de 1,46 a 17,1 µmol L-1, apresentando boa linearidade, com coeficiente de determinação (r2) de 0,998. Os limites de detecção (LD) e de quantificação (LQ) obtidos foram de 0,27 µmol L-1 e 0,92 µmol L-1, respectivamente. A precisão da metodologia desenvolvida foi avaliada por meio da repetibilidade e a reprodutibilidade e a exatidão determinada pelo erro relativo. Os testes de recuperação realizados pelo método de adição de padrão forneceram valores de 98%. A metodologia eletroanalítica desenvolvida para determinação do piridafention foi aplicada em amostras de óleo essencial de laranja, contaminadas com três níveis de concentração 1,5, 2,9 e 5,9 µmol L-1. Foram avaliados quatro procedimentos de extração líquido-líquido, utilizando água Milli-Q como extrator: i) agitação manual da mistura (10 mL de óleo e 10 mL de água) por 4 minutos com repetição do procedimento por 3 vezes; ii) agitação magnética da mistura (5 mL de óleo e 50 mL de água) por 20 minutos em uma única etapa, à temperatura ambiente; iii) agitação magnética da mistura (5 mL de óleo e 50 mL de água) por 20 minutos em uma única etapa, à temperatura de 45°C; iv) agitação da mistura em mesa orbital com tempo de agitação variando de 5 até 180 minutos. Os melhores resultados foram obtidos com o procedimento utilizando a agitação por mesa orbital (iv), sendo recomendado, portanto, para extração do piridafention em amostras de óleo essencial de laranja. No caso da cihexatina, os testes realizados visando à determinação de uma metodologia eletroanalítica mostraram uma baixa reprodutibilidade do eletrodo filme de bismuto inviabilizando a sua aplicação na eletroanálise da cihexatina. Entretanto, devido à importância da cihexatina e do bromopropilato recomenda-se a realização de mais estudos eletroquímicos com o objetivo de se estabelecer novos métodos de análise. / The citrus production introduced in Brazil during the colonization period and commercially exploited since 1930, is very important for the Brazilian agribusiness. Currently, Brazil is responsible for 50% of the total world citrus production and for about 85% of the citrus world exportation trade, representing an income of about 2.5 billion dollars for the country yearly. The orange juice is the major product of the citrus industry, but other commercially valuable byproducts can be obtained during the manufacturing process, such as the citrus essential oils. These byproduct, located at the orange fruit exocarp, are extracted during the juice production process by cold pressing. Due to the use of pesticides in the citrus production, these agrochemicals can be occasionally presented in extracted essential oil products as unwished residues, which significantly reduce their values in the international market and restrict their insertion in exigent markets as the European, Japanese and North American, for instance. This study aim to develop electroanalytical methodologies for the determination of some pesticides widely employed in the Brazilian citrus production and that has been found in the essential oils produced by the processing industries. Preliminar tests were conducted to evaluate the electroactivity of three pesticides (pyridaphention, cyhexatin and bromopropylate) widely applied in Brazil, but not regulated for use in most of the importing countries. Using the cyclic voltammetry technique, these experiments showed that pyridaphenthion presented a good electrochemical response on the graphite-polyurethane composite electrode (GPU), cyhexatin showed electroactivity on thin bismuth film electrode and bromopropylate was not electroactive on the tested electodes. Studies conducted using cyclic voltammetry showed that pyridaphenthion presents a reduction peak in -0.8 V (vs. ESCE) on GPU in acidic medium (Britton - Robinson buffer 0.1 mol L- 1(BR)) with features of an irreversible process. The electroanalytical methodology for pyridaphenthion analysis was developed using square wave voltammetry (SWV) with optimization of pH (1.0) and the SWV scanning parameters, as pulse frequency (80 s-1), amplitude (50 mV), and increment (ΔEi = 5 mV). An analytical curve was obtained for concentrations ranging from 1.46 a 17.1 µmol L-1, showing good linearity expressed in the determination coefficient (r2) of 0.998. The detection limit (LOD) and quantification limit (LOQ) obtained were 0.27 µmol L-1 and 0.92 µmol L-1, respectively. The precision was evaluated by means its repeatability and reproductibility, while accuracy was assessed by means relative error. Recovery experiments conducted using the standard addition method provided a concentration recovering level of 98%. The electroanalytical methodology developed for pyridaphenthion was applied in citrus essential oil samples spiked with three concentration levels 1.5, 2.9 and 5.9 µmol L-1. Four liquid-liquid extraction procedures were evaluated using only Milli-Q purified water as extracting agent: i) manual stirring of the mixture (10 mL of essential oil and 10 mL of water) during 4 minutes, repeating the procedure three times; ii) magnetic stirring of the mixture (5 mL of essential oil and 50 mL of water) during 20 minutes, in a single step, at room temperature; iii) magnetic stirring of the mixture (5 mL of essential oil and 50 mL of water) during 20 minutes, in a single step, at 45o C; iv) orbital shaking of the mixture (5 mL of essential oil and 50 mL of water) for different period of times varying from 5 to 180 minutes. The best results were obtained with the procedure using the orbital shaking table (iv), which is, therefore, recommended for extraction of pyridaphention residues in citrus essential oils samples. For the cyhexatin, studies carried out aiming to determine an electroanalytical methodology, showed low reproducibility of the bismuth film, preventing its application in the electroanalysis of cyhexatin. However, due to the importance of these pesticides in citrus essential oils production it is recommended additional studies regarding the electrochemistry and electroanalysis of these chemicals.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-19T12:56:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Paulina.pdf: 725601 bytes, checksum: 35f069993277f6b916268a2d9bce2228 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-08-12 / Biodiesel has been studied as an alternative in reducing emissions of gases, however, it is necessary to analyse and to assure the quality of this biofuel because of the presence of possible contaminants, such as metals, which degrade the biodiesel during the storage process besides possible emissions of waste from its production. To analyze the Pb (II) into biodiesel, the sample was prepared by means of microemulsion by mixing biodiesel, nitric acid and propan-1-ol, The advantage in the use of microemulsões in vegetable oils is that analyses become faster, avoiding random errors, since it eliminates extraction steps and pré-concentração during the preparation of the sample.This work was intended to determine Pb (II) in the sample of biodiesel, through the preparation of the sample in microemulsion, and analyze by Anodic voltammetry in square wave mode by film of bismuth (BiFE). The technique used for determination of analyte was differential voltammetry in square wave mode because it is a sensitive technique and has low cost. The bismuth film was used as an alternative because of its low toxicity, besides forming alloys with many metals. In this proposed procedure, several experimental parameters have been optimized, showing the best conditions, such as potential deposition ( -1,2 V), time of deposition (60 s), study of the composition of the reaction mixture (8 mL of electrolyte mixture: 2 mL microemulsion) and the possible influence of Zn (II), Cd (II) and Cu (II) in the current peak Pb (II) ion. The optimized parameters for technique were: frequency of 10 Hz and scan rate 60 mV s-1 bismuth electrode exhibited a good linearity in the concentration of Pb (II) in the range 2,5x10-9 - 7,5x10-9 mol L-1 (R2 =0,997- 0,999) for samples using microemulsions; LD of 2, 96x10-10 mol L-1 besides a good reproducibility (CV = 5,23-3,97%) to concentrations of Pb (II) 2,09x10-9 mol L-1 and 3,35x10-9 mol L-1 (n = 3 measures), respectively. Through the results obtained, it was found that the methodology applied is suitable for analysis of metal in the array of study. / O biodiesel tem sido estudado como uma das alternativas energéticas na redução de emissões de gases, no entanto, precisa-se avaliar a qualidade desse biocombustível devido à presença de possíveis contaminantes, tais como os metais, que degradam o biodiesel durante o processo de estocagem, além de possíveis emissões de resíduos oriundos da sua produção. Para analisar o Pb (II) em biodiesel, a amostra foi preparada por meio de microemulsão pela mistura de biodiesel, ácido nítrico e propan-1-ol. A vantagem na utilização de microemulsões em óleos vegetais é que as análises tornam-se mais rápidas, evitando-se erros aleatórios, uma vez que se eliminam as etapas de extração e pré-concentração durante o preparo da amostra. Assim, o presente trabalho teve por objetivo determinar Pb (II) em amostras de biodiesel, através do preparo da amostra em microemulsão usando o eletrodo de filme de bismuto e a técnica voltamétrica de Redissolução Anódica no modo Onda Quadrada. Essa técnica foi escolhida, pois é uma técnica sensível e de baixo custo. O filme de bismuto foi usado como alternativo devido sua baixa toxicidade, além de formar ligas com muitos metais o que contribui na determinação desses íons metálicos. Neste procedimento proposto, vários parâmetros experimentais foram otimizados, mostrando as melhores condições, tais como, potencial de deposição (-1,2 V), tempo de deposição (60s), estudo da composição do meio reacional (8 mL de mistura eletrolítica: 2 mL de microemulsão) e a possível influência de Zn (II), Cd (II) e Cu (II) na corrente de pico do íon Pb (II). Os parâmetros otimizados com relação à técnica foram os seguintes: frequência de 10 Hz e velocidade de varredura 60 mV s-1. O eletrodo de bismuto exibiu uma boa linearidade na faixa de concentração de Pb(II) entre 2,5x10-9 e 7,5x10-9 mol L-1 (R2 =0,997- 0,999) para as amostras microemulsionadas, LD de 2,96x10-10 mol L-1 além de boa reprodutibilidade (CV = 5,23-3,97 %) para concentrações de Pb(II) de 2,09x10-9 mol L-1 e 3,35 x10-9 mol L-1 (n = 3 medidas), respectivamente. Através dos resultados obtidos, foi possível constatar que a metodologia aplicada é adequada para análise desse metal na matriz de estudo.

[pt] O monitoramento de resíduos de pesticidas é extremamente importante e isso se dá pelo emprego de métodos analíticos adequados para avaliar a sua presença em compartimentos ambientais e a contaminação de alimentos com esses agentes. Os pesticidas da classe das estrobilurinas vêm se tornando os mais utilizados para o controle dos fungos e apesar da propagada baixa toxicidade e rápida degradação, estudos devem ser realizados para averiguar o nível de exposição dos humanos a tais substâncias. Estudos com as estrobilurinas (azoxistrobina, cresoxim-metílico, dimoxistrobina, fluoxastrobina, picoxistrobina, piraclostrobina e trifloxistrobina) utilizando o eletrodo de trabalho de diamante dopado com boro (DDB) foram realizados por voltametria cíclica e voltametria de onda quadrada (SWV) e indicaram dois picos de oxidação (varredura anódica) em potenciais distintos. Dados experimentais e da literatura permitiram supor que para cresoxim-metílico e dimoxistrobina o primeiro pico de oxidação tem um mecanismo irreversível com 2 mols de elétrons por mol de analito e o segundo pico de oxidação com mecanismo quase-reversível. Para picoxistrobina, os dois picos de oxidação são irreversíveis com 2 mols de elétrons por mol de analito. Para piraclostrobina os dois picos de oxidação são quase-reversíveis. Métodos por SWV foram desenvolvidos utilizando DDB para determinação de cresoxim-metílico, picoxistrobina e piraclostrobina. As varreduras anódicas foram feitas entre: +1000 a +1750 mV (medição do sinal em +1420 mV) para cresoxim-metílico; +1100 a +1800 mV (medição do sinal em +1450 mV) para picoxistrobina e +1050 a +2100 mV (medição do sinal em +1280 mV) para piraclostrobina. O eletrólito suporte foi tampão acetato (0,05 mol L-1; pH 4,0) para a determinação de cresoxim-metílico e piraclostrobina e tampão Britton-Robinson (0,04 mol L-1; pH 2,0) para a picoxistrobina. Resposta analítica linear para cresoxim-metílico foi do limite de quantificação, LOQ, (0,9 umol L-1 ou 0,27 mg L-1) até 34,0 μmol L-1 com R2> 0,999. Para picoxistrobina a faixa linear foi do LOQ (0,7 mol L-1 ou 0,25 mg L-1) a 20,0 μmol L-1 (R2> 0,994). Já para piraclostrobina a faixa linear foi do LOQ (0,8 μmol L-1 ou 0,32 mg L-1) a 20,0 μmol L-1 (R2> 0,991). Os métodos foram aplicados na análise de amostras de suco de uva (cresoxim-metílico e piraclostrobina) e águas naturais (picoxistrobina e piraclostrobina). As recuperações variaram de 91,6 a 105,3 porcento dependendo da estrobilurina. Os métodos propostos foram comparados com cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC) e os resultados não indicaram diferença significativa entre eles. Amostras de suco de uva comercial foram fortificadas na concentração do limite máximo permitido pela legislação, sendo o analito pré-concentrado dez vezes por extração em fase sólida (SPE), com cartucho C18, obtendo-se recuperações entre 95,4 a 99,5 porcento dependendo da estrobilurina. Dados experimentais indicaram que não houve degradação térmica significativa para as estrobilurinas em soluções aquecidas a 60 °C durante 2 h. Não foi possível propor um perfil simples de cinética para degradação por exposição ao UV para o cresoxim-metílico. Para picoxistrobina e piraclostrobina, um modelo de cinética de segunda ordem pode ser atribuído para a degradação por exposição ao UV. Métodos com a abordagem de análise por injeção em batelada (BIA) com detecção amperométrica no eletrodo de DDB foram desenvolvidos para a determinação de dimoxistrobina e picoxistrobina em águas naturais. Os métodos apresentaram uma frequência de análise de 180 injeções h-1 (dimoxistrobina) e 108 injeções h-1 (picoxistrobina), e precisão satisfatória (abaixo de 5 porcento). Resposta analítica linear para dimoxistrobina foi de 1,3 μmol L-1 (0,41 mg L-1) a 60,0 μmol L-1 com R2> 0,999 e para picoxistrobina foi de 5,3 μmol L-1 (1,95 mg L-1) e 100,0 μmol L-1 (R2> 0,999). Valores de recuperação obtidos nas amostras de águas naturais fortificadas com os analitos foram entre 80,2 e 105,6 porcento dependendo do analito. Além disso, uma estratégia simples para detectar a presença de moléculas interferentes em amostras de água com base na amperometria de múltiplos pulsos foi apresentada com sucesso. Um método voltamétrico de redissolução anódica por pulso diferencial usando o eletrodo de filme de bismuto foi desenvolvido para a determinação de picoxistrobina em amostras de urina e águas naturais. O ciclo de medição começou com a aplicação de um potencial de deposição de -700 mV durante 60 s para a formação in situ do filme Bi e a acumulação do analito. A varredura de potencial foi no sentido anódico entre +790 e +1050 mV. Provou-se que, nas condições empregadas, uma quantidade significativa de filme de Bi ainda está presente na superfície do eletrodo de carbono vítreo após a varredura anódica, com uma velocidade de 40 mV s-1. A presença de Bi é fundamental para a acumulação e oxidação de picoxistrobina (pico máximo em +954 mV) durante redissolução. O eletrólito suporte foi HCl 1,0 mol L-1. Um procedimento de limpeza foi desenvolvido a fim de minimizar o efeito de memória. Resposta analítica linear para picoxistrobina foi observada de 2,8 μmol L-1 (1,0 mg L-1) até 19,0 μmol L-1 (R2> 0,994). SPE permitiu a pré-concentração do analito e eliminou as interferências nas amostras de urina. Recuperações de 89,3 a 104,8 porcento foram encontradas e a interferência das outras estrobilurinas ao método foram avaliadas. O método proposto foi comparado com HPLC e os resultados indicam que não houve diferença significativa entre eles. / [en] The monitoring of pesticide residues is extremely important and this is accomplished by the use of methods to assess their presence in environmental compartments and in food stuff contaminated with these agents. The pesticides of the strobilurin class have become the most widely used for fungi control and despite the low toxicity and rapid degradation, studies should be conducted to ascertain the level of human exposure to such substances. Studies with the strobilurin pesticides (azoxystrobin, kresoxim-methyl, dimoxystrobin, fluoxastrobin, picoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin and trifloxystrobin) were performed by cyclic voltammetry and square wave voltammetry (SWV) using the boron-doped diamond (BDD). Results indicated two oxidation peaks (anodic scan) at different potentials. Based on experimental data and literature it is assumed that for kresoxim-methyl and dimoxystrobin the first oxidation peak comes from an irreversible mechanism involvieng 2 moles of electrons per mole of analyte while the second oxidation peak is from a quasi-reversible mechanism. For picoxystrobin, the two oxidation peaks are from irreversible processes involving 2 moles of electrons per mole of analyte. For pyraclostrobin, the two oxidation peaks are from quasi-reversible processes. SWV methods were developed for determination of kresoxim-methyl, pyraclostrobin and picoxystrobin using the BDD. The anodic scans were made between: +1000 to +1750 mV (measured signal at +1420 mV) for kresoxim-methyl; +1100 to +1800 mV (measured signal at +1450 mV) for picoxystrobin and +1050 to +2100 mV (measured signal at +1280 mV) for pyraclostrobin. The supporting electrolyte was acetate buffer (0.05 mol L-1, pH 4.0) for the determination of kresoxim-methyl and pyraclostrobin and Britton-Robinson buffer (0.04 mol L-1, pH 2.0) to picoxystrobin. Linear analytical response to kresoxim-methyl was the limit of quantification, LOQ (0.9 μmol L-1 or 0.27 mg L-1) to 34.0 μmol L-1 with R2> 0.999. For picoxystrobin the linear range was from LOQ (0.7 μmol L-1 or 0.25 mg L-1) to 20.0 μmol L-1 (R2> 0.994). Pyraclostrobin presented linear range from LOQ (0.8 μmol L-1 and 0.32 mg L-1) to 20.0 μmol L-1 (R2> 0.991). The methods were applied in the analysis of grape juice samples (kresoxim-methyl and pyraclostrobin) and in natural waters (picoxystrobin and pyraclostrobin). The recoveries ranged from 91.6 to 105.3 percent depending on the strobilurin. The results obtained with the proposed methods were compared with the ones achieved by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) indicating no significant difference between them. Commercial grape juice samples were fortified at the maximum concentration allowed legislation and the analytes were pre-concentrated (tenfold) by solid phase extraction (SPE) in a C18 cartridge analyte Recoveries were between 95.4 to 99.5 percent depending on the strobilurin. Experimental data indicate that no significant thermal degradation occurred for strobilurins in solutions heated at 60 °C for 2 h. It was not possible to propose a simple kinetic profile for the UV degradation of kresoxim-methyl. However, for picoxystrobin and pyraclostrobin, a second-order kinetic model explains their degradation profile. Methods using batch injection analysis (BIA) with amperometric detection on a BDD electrode have also been developed for the determination of picoxystrobin and dimoxystrobin in natural waters. The methods showed an analytical frequency of 180 injections h-1 (dimoxystrobin) and 108 injections h-1 (picoxystrobin) and satisfactory precision (less than 5 percent). Linear analytical response for dimoxystrobin was from 1.3 μmol L-1 (0.41 mg L-1) to 60.0 μmol L-1 with R2> 0.999 while for picoxystrobin, the range was from 5.3 μmol L-1 (1.95 mg L-1) to 100.0 μmol L-1 (R2> 0.999). Recoveries achieved for analyte fortified water samples were between 80.2 and 105.6 percent depending on the analyte. In addition, a simple strategy to detect the presence of interfering molecules in water samples, based on multiple pulse amperometry, was successfully introduced. A stripping anodic differential pulse voltammetric method using the bismuth film electrode was developed for the determination picoxystrobin in urine samples and in natural waters. The measurement cycle started with the application of a deposition potential of -700 mV for 60 s for the in situ formation of the Bi film and for the accumulation of analyte. The potential was scanned in the anodic direction between +790 and +1050 mV. It has been proven that, under the conditions employed, a significant amount of Bi film is still present on the surface of the glassy carbon electrode after anodic sweep, with a speed of 40 mV s-1. The presence of Bi is essential for the accumulation and oxidation of picoxystrobin (maximum peak at +954 mV) during stripping. The supporting electrolyte was HCl 1.0 mol L-1. A cleaning procedure was developed to minimize the memory effect. Analytical linear response was observed for picoxystrobin from 2.8 μmol L-1 (1.0 mg L-1) to 19.0 μmol L-1 (R2> 0.994). SPE allowed the pre-concentration of the analyte and elimination of interferences from urine samples. Recoveries from 89.3 to 104.8 percent were found. Interference of other strobilurin the method were evaluated. The proposed method was compared with HPLC and the results indicate no significant difference between them.

Объектами исследования служили лечебный препарат «Эндофальк» и товарный уротропина от ПАО «Метафракс». Цель работы: разработка вольтамперометрической методики количественного определения формальдегида с использованием толстопленочного углеродсодержащего электрода, модифицированного пленкой висмута (ТУЭ/Bi), в объектах фармации на примере уротропина и лекарственного препарата, содержащего в качестве основного вещества субстанцию «Макрогол 3350». Формальдегид (ФМ) относится к высоко опасным веществам с канцерогенным действием. Простые и чувствительные методы определения формальдегида необходимы для его контроля в объектах окружающей среды, питьевой воде, пищевых продуктах, товарах бытового назначения, фармпрепаратах. Электроаналитические методы с использованием индикаторных электродов, модифицированных различными металлами (Pd, Pt, Au, Ni Hg, Cu, Ag), считаются хорошей альтернативой спектральным, хемилюминесцентным и хроматографическим методам анализа для обнаружения следов ФМ из-за их высокой чувствительности, селективности, простоты и низкой стоимости оборудования, возможности проведения измерений в режиме реального времени. В работе впервые изучена возможность использования нетоксичного Bi/ТУЭ для определения ФМ. Для перевода гидратированной формы ФМ в его электрохимически активное производное использовали известный прием образования формальдегид гидразона (ФАГ) в присутствии сернокислого гидразина на фоне фосфатного буфера. Ток восстановления ФМ (АС) достигает максимальных значений при рН буферного раствора 5,2 ± 0,1 в присутствии 0,09– 0,15 М сернокислого гидразина на пленке висмута, осажденной предварительно в течение 8 - 12 мин при потенциале электролиза (-1,0) В. Установлено, что величина АС ФМ не зависит от времени накопления при потенциале (–0,5) В, при котором не происходят редокс - процессы в исследуемой системе, в течение 1 – 30 с. Разработаны методики количественного определения формальдегида в объектах фармации на примере ЛП «Эндофальк» и товарного уротропина от ПАО «Метафракс». Правильность полученных результатов подтверждена сравнением с результатами независимых методов анализа, прописанных в ФС РФ XIV издания на субстанции уротропина и «Макрогола 3350». / The objects of research were the medicinal product “Endofalk” and marketed urotropin from PJSC “Metafrax”. The mail goal of the research was to develope of a voltammetric method for quantitative determination of formaldehyde using a thick-film carbon-containing electrode modified with a bismuth film (TUE / Bi) in pharmacological objects on the example of urotropin and a drug similar to the substance “Macrogol 3350”. Formaldehyde (FM) is a highly hazardous substance with a carcinogenic effect. Simple and sensitive methods for the determination of formaldehyde are necessary for its control in environmental objects, drinking water, food products, household goods, pharmaceuticals. Electroanalytical methods using indicator electrodes modified with various metals (Pd, Pt, Au, Ni Hg, Cu, Ag) are considered to be a good alternative to spectral, chemiluminescent and chromatographic analysis methods for detecting traces of FM due to their high sensitivity, selectivity, simplicity and low cost of equipment, the ability to take measurements in real time. The possibility of using non-toxic Bi / TUE for the determination of FM was first studied in this work. To transfer the hydrated form of FM to its electrochemically active derivative, the well-known method for the formation of formaldehyde hydrazone (FAG) in the presence of hydrazine sulfate in the background of phosphate buffer was used. A higher current was obtained in buffer solution with value of pH 5.2 ± 0.1 and in a solution of 0.09–0.15 M hydrazine sulfate on a bismuth film pre-deposited for 8–12 min at an electrolysis potential of (-1 , 0). It was established that the value of AS FM does not depend on the accumulation time at a potential of (–0.5) V, at which no redox processes in the system for 1–30 s under study are observed. Methods have been developed for the quantitative determination of formaldehyde in pharmacological objects on the example of medicinal preparation “Endofalk” and urotropin from PJSC “Metafrax”. The correctness of the obtained results is confirmed by comparison with the results of independent analysis methods prescribed in the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation of the XIV edition on the substances of urotropin and “Macrogol 3350”.

5 Abstract This Diploma Thesis is targeted on the determination of 5-nitrobenzimidazole (5-NBIA) using following techniques: DC voltammetry (DCV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). As working electrodes, a silver amalgam paste electrode (AgA-PE), which was constructed for this determination in the form of a new prototype, a bismuth film electrode (BiFE), at which the optimum conditions for the deposition of the bismuth film at a suitable substrate (glassy carbon electrode and gold electrode were tested for this purpose) were initially optimized, and a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) were used. The optimum conditions for the voltammetric determination of 5-NBIA at the AgA-PE (in a medium of Britton-Robinson buffer (BR-buffer) of pH 7.0 for both DCV and DPV), at the BiFE with gold substrate (BR-buffer of pH 9.0 for both DCV and DPV; the film was deposited "ex situ" in a stirred plating solution (1000 mg L-1 Bi(III) solution in 0.1 mol L-1 acetate buffer of pH 4.5) for 300 s), and at the GCE (BR-buffer of pH 5,0 for both DCV and DPV). Under these conditions, calibration dependences were measured in the concentration ranges of 0.1 - 100 µmol L-1 (pro DCV a DPV na AgA-PE) and 1 - 100 µmol L-1 (pro DCV a DPV na BiFE a GCE), and the limits of quantification (LQs) were calculated for particular methods: LQ ≈...

<p>Danas, u raznim analitičkim laboratorijama postoji veći broj analitičkih protokola,<br />zasnovanih bilo na izuzetno sofisticiranim ili jednostavnijim tehnikama, koji služe za<br />određivanje različitih ciljnih analita od farmakolo&scaron;kog značaja. Među tim grupama ciljnih analita pripadaju i antibiotici koji predstavljaju veliko otkriće u oblasti medicine i zahvaljujući njima spa&scaron;eno je vi&scaron;e od sedam miliona života, ali pored navedenih koristi, antibiotici mogu da izazovu&nbsp; veliki broj neželjenih efekata i žučne kiseline zajedno sa svojim derivatima, koji su fiziolo&scaron;ki deterdženti, mogu biti citotoksične za organizam ako se njihova koncentracija ne kontroli&scaron;e. U ovoj doktorskoj disertaciji prikazan je razvoj analitičkih metoda pre svega voltametrijskihmetoda u kombinaciji sa jednostavnim i savremenim elektrodama/senzorima za određivanje&nbsp; odabranih analita kao &scaron;to je antraciklični antibiotik doksorubicin (DOX), makrolidni antibiotici<br />eritromicin-etilsukcinata (EES), azitromicina (AZI), klaritromicina (CLA) i roksitromicina&nbsp; (ROX) i 3-dehidro-deoksiholne kiseline.</p><p>Voltametrijska karakterizacija i određivanje gore navedenih antibiotika primenom obnovljive srebro-amalgam film elektrode (Hg(Ag)FE)rađena je direktnom katodnom&nbsp; voltametrijom sa pravougaonim talasima (SWV) i visoko osetljivom adsorptivnom voltametrijom sa pravougaonim talasima (SW-AdSV) u Briton-Robinson puferu, kao pomoćnom elektrolitu, obuhvatajući &scaron;irok opseg pH vrednosti. Odgovor DOX-a primenom&nbsp; Hg(Ag)FE&nbsp;praćen je u intervalu potencijala od -0,20 do -0,80 V.&nbsp; Za analizu tragova, optimizacija metode ukazuje da su optimalni parametri za analitički pik na potencijalu (Ep ) -0,57 V u odnosu na zasićenu kalomelovu elektrodu (ZKE): pH 6,0, potencijal&nbsp; akumulacije -0,20 V i vreme&nbsp; akumulacije 140 s. U model rastvoru, DOX je određivan u koncentracionom opsegu 4,99-59,64&nbsp; ng mL^-1. Razvijena SW-AdSV metoda je primenjena za određivanje DOX-a u obogaćenom uzorku humanog urina. Niža koncentracija DOX-a 9,89ng mL^-1&nbsp;u voltametrijskoj&nbsp; ćeliji je određivana sa relativnom standardnom devijacijom (RSD) manjom od 6,0%. &Scaron;to se ispitivanih makrolida tiče oni su pokazali redukcione signale u dalekoj negativnoj oblasti potencijala. Ispitivanja direktnom katodnom SWV rađena su u opsegu potencijala od -0,75 V do -2,00 V u odnosu na ZKE, pri čemu su dobijena jedan ili dva redukciona pika u opsegu potencijala od -1,5 V do -1,9 V. Oblik i intenzitet signala zavisi od primenjene pH vrednosti u &scaron;irokoj pH oblasti. Za analitičke svrhe, radi razvoja direktne katodne SWV i adsorptivne inverzne/striping SWV metode, pogodnim su se pokazale neutralna i slabo alkalna sredina tj. pH 7,0 sa&nbsp; E_p na -1,67 V u odnosu na ZKE za ROX i EES i pH 7,2 sa E_p na -1,85 V u odnosu na ZKE za AZI i pH 7,4 sa E_p na -1,64 V u odnosu na ZKE za CLA. Na osnovu snimljenih cikličnih voltamograma na&nbsp; optimalnim pH vrednostima, može se predložiti adsorptivno-kontrolisan kinetički proces na elektrodi u slučaju sva&nbsp; četiri ispitivana jedinjenja. Takođe,&nbsp; ¹H NMR merenja uz potiskivanje&nbsp; signala vode u pH oblasti između pH 6,0 i 10,5 ukazuju na to da su makrolidni molekuli pri optimalnim analitičkim uslovima predominantno u protonovanoj formi preko tercijerne amino grupe &scaron;to potpomaže, u sva&nbsp; četiri slučaja, njihovu adsorpciju na odgovarajuće polarizovanoj Hg(Ag)FE. Optimizovane direktne katodne SWV metode&nbsp; pokazuju dobru linearnost u koncentracionom opsegu 4,81-23,3&nbsp; &micro;g mL^-1 , 4,53-29,8&nbsp; &micro;g mL^-1 , 1,96-28,6&nbsp; &micro;g mL^-1 i 1,48-25,9 &micro;g mL^-1 za AZI, EES, CLA odnosno ROX. Razvijene SW-AdSV metode rezultiraju u linearnom odgovoru pri nižim koncentracionim intervalima 1,0-2,46 &micro;g mL^-1 ,&nbsp; 0,69-2,44&nbsp; &micro;g mL^-1, 0,05-0,99 &micro;g mL^-1 i 0,10-0,99&nbsp; &micro;g mL^-1 , za AZI, EES, CLA i ROX. RSD za sve razvijene metode nije veća od 1,5% izuzev SWV metode u slučaju AZI-a gde je 4,5%. Direktna katodna SWV metoda&nbsp; je uspe&scaron;no primenjena za određivanje EES-a u farmaceutskom proizvodu Eritromicin^&reg; dok SW-AdSV metoda je primenjena u slučaju određivanja EES-a u obogaćenom uzorku humanog urina i&nbsp;za određivanje ROX-a u farmaceutskom proizvodu Runac^&reg; . U svim pomenutim slučajevima, primenjena je metoda standardnog dodatka. Pouzdanost i tačnost elaboriranih procedura u slučaju određivanja EES-a u model sistemu i&nbsp; farmaceutskom proizvodu Eritromicin^&reg; su potvrđena poređenjem sa rezultatima dobijenim primenom HPLC-DAD metode.</p><p>Nakon preliminarnih studija 3-dehidro-deoksiholne&nbsp; kiseline/3-dehidro-deoksiholata primenom elektrode od staklastog ugljenika (GCE), gde je uočeno da ne dolazi do formiranja redukcionog signala u Briton-Robinson puferu između pH 5,0 i 11,8 primenom direktne katodne SWV, bizmut-film je izdvojen&nbsp; <em>ex situ</em> na povr&scaron;ini iste elektrode od staklastog ugljenika (BiF-GCE) iz uobičajeno kori&scaron;ćenog rastvora za elektrodepoziciju (0,02 mol L^-1 Bi(NO₃)₃, 1,0 mol L^-1 HCl i 0,5 mol L^-1 KBr) i tako pripremljena elektroda je primenjena za karakterizaciju i određivanje pomenutog jedinjenja u alkalnoj sredini. Redukcioni signal ispitivanog analita od analitičkog značaja je uočen jedino primenom BiF-GCE u Briton-Robinson puferusa pH vrednostima između 9,5 i 11,8 u režimu adsorptivne inverzne/stripingvoltametrije sa pravougaonim talasima, dok u slučaju direktnih katodnih SWV eksperimentalnih uslova uočen je slab redukcioni pik sa niskom strujom maksimuma pika. Optimizovani eksperimentalni uslovi za određivanje 3-dehidro-deoksiholata obuhvataju odgovarajuće kondicioniranje elektrode uključujući kondicioniranje&nbsp; <em>ex situ</em> pripremljene BiF-GCE u Briton-Robinson pomoćnom elektrolitu pH 11,8 do stabilizacije struje bazne linije elektrohemijskim cikliranjem potencijala radne elektrode u potencijalskom opsegu između -1,00 i -2,00 V u odnosu na ZKE (blizu 15 puta) i primenu dva ključna parametara adsorptivne voltametrije sa pravougaonim talasima: vreme akumulacije od 30 s i potencijal akumulacije&nbsp; -1,00 V u odnosu na ZKE. Zbog relativne asimetričnosti dobijenih redukcionih signala ispitivanog analita sa&nbsp; E_p na -1,35 V u odnosu na ZKE, &scaron;to je takođe prisutno i u slučaju primene SW-AdSV, određivanje ispitivanog analita je zasnovano na linearnoj zavisnosti između povr&scaron;ine pika redukcionog signala&nbsp; spitivanog analita i njegove odgovarajuće koncentracije i postignuta granica detekcije je 1,43 &micro;g mL^-1 sa dva linearna opsega kalibracione krive od 4,76 &micro;g mL^-1 do 13,0 &micro;g mL^-1 i od 13,0 &micro;g mL^-1 do 23,1 &micro;g mL^-1 za razvoj analitičke metode. RSD metode je 3,22%. Dodatni eksperimenti, elektroliza ispitivanog analita na potencijalu -1,55 V (blizu maksimuma pika ciljnog analita) u odnosu na ZKE su rađeni primenom GCE u obliku ploče (povr&scaron;ina 33,52 cm 2 ) modifikovane sa&nbsp; <em>ex situ&nbsp;</em>pripremljenim bizmut-filmom. Rastvor od interesa uzorkovan je na početku eksperimenta, nakon 2,5 h i nakon 4,5 h tretmana. Ovakvi uzorci su analizirani primenom ¹H NMR merenja uz potiskivanje signala vode u puferskom rastvoru pH 11,8. Može se pretpostaviti da tokom elektrolize 3-dehidro-deoksiholata dolazi do redukcije keto grupe prisutne u strukturi ispitivanog analita.</p><p>Na osnovu literaturnih podataka da neki od ciljnihmakrolidnih antibiotika kao &scaron;to je npr. azitromicin pokazuju oksidativno pona&scaron;anje na elektrodi od ugljenične paste i elektrodi od zlata deteljna karakterizacija i određivanje&nbsp; četiri makrolidna antibiotika rađena je primenom&nbsp; asične&nbsp;elektrode od ugljenične paste (CPE) koja se sastoji samo od grafitnog praha i parafinskog ulja sa optimizovanih direktnih anodnih SWV metoda. U slučaju EES-a i AZI-a diferencijalna pulsna voltametrija (DPV) je testirana za iste svrhe. Ključni&nbsp; parametar u slučaju razvoja analitičkih voltametrijskih metoda je odabir pH vrednosti pomoćnog elektrolita gde je oblik/simetričnost i intenzitet oskidacionog pika glavni kriterijum prilikom odabira. Kao odgovarajuće pH vrednosti za voltametrijsko određivanje EES-a primenom SWV metode odabrana je pH 8,0 sa E_p na 0,83<br />V u odnosu na ZKE, dok u slučaju DPV metode pH 12,0 sa&nbsp; E_p na 0,55 V u odnosu na ZKE je bila najpogodnija za analitičke svrhe. Za određivanje AZI-a, u slučaju obe SWV i DPV metode pH 7,0 se pokazala najpogodnijom sa E_p analitičkog signala na 0,85 V odnosno 0,80 V u odnosu na ZKE, dok u slučaju CLA i ROX koji su ispitivani samo primenom SWV metode za analitičke svrhe pH 12,0 je bila najpogodnija sredina sa E_p analitičkog signala na 0,65 V odnosno na 0,63 V&nbsp;u odnosu na ZKE. Postignute granice detkcije primenom nemodifikovane CPE i direktne anodne SWV su uglavnom u submikrogramskom koncentracionom opsegu 0,17 &micro;g mL^-1 , 0,32&nbsp; &micro;g mL^-1 i 0,30&nbsp; &micro;g mL^-1, u slučaju EES-a, AZI-a i ROX-a i u niskom mikrogramskom koncentracionom opsegu 1,43&nbsp; &micro;g mL^-1 za CLA. Razvijena SWV metoda sa jednostavnom CPE pokazala se pogodnom za određivanje ROX-a u komercijalnom proizvodu Runac^&reg; tableti. U slučaju optimizovanih DPV metoda postignute granice detekcije za EES i AZI su u niskom mikrogramskom&nbsp; koncentracionom opsegu 1,03&nbsp; &micro;g mL^-1 odnosno 1,53&nbsp; &micro;g&nbsp; mL^-1 . U želji da se&nbsp;postigne niža granica detekcije za AZI, DPV metoda&nbsp; je testirana u kombinaciji sa&nbsp; CPE radnom elektrodom povr&scaron;inski modifikovanom sa zlatnim nanočesticama&nbsp; prečnika 10 nm (Au-CPE) i&nbsp; postignuta granica detekcije je 0,95&nbsp; &micro;g mL^-1 sa&nbsp; E_p analitičkog signala na 0,80 V u odnosu na&nbsp; ZKE. RSD metode u slučaju Au-CPE je 3,5%, dok je u slučaju nemodifikovane CPE 6,0%.&nbsp; Linearnost analitičke metode zasnovane na primeni Au-CPE je dva puta &scaron;ira nego u slučaju&nbsp; primene nemodifikovane CPE.</p><p>Na osnovu dobijenih rezultata može se zaključiti da&nbsp; odgovarajuće kombinacije&nbsp; optimizovanih voltametrijskih tehnika sa ekolo&scaron;ki prihvatljivim i lako primenljivim radnim&nbsp; elektrodama, kao &scaron;to su Hg(Ag)FE, BiF-GCE i CPE zajedno sa Au-CPE, rezultuju razvojem&nbsp; pouzdanih analitičkih metoda, kako u oksidacionim tako i u redukcionim proučavanjima, koje&nbsp; često omogućuju&nbsp; određivanje tragova analita od farmakolo&scaron;kog značaja u jednostavnim, a u&nbsp;nekim slučajevima i u složenim sistemima.&nbsp;</p> / <p>Nowadays in different analytical laboratories there is the increasing number of analytical protocols, either based on highly sophisticated or simpler measurements techniques, which serving for determination of different target analytes of pharmacological importance. Among such target groups of the analyte belongs the antibiotics which present a great discovery in the field of medicine and thanks to them were saved more than seven million people but beside to the mentioned great benefits, antibiotics can cause a large number of side effects and bile acids together with their derivatives which are physiological detergents but if their concentration is not<br />controlled they can be cytotoxic to the body. In the present doctoral dissertation the development of analytical methods, primarily analytical voltammetric methods in combination with simple and contemporary electrodes/sensors, for the determination of selected analytes as antracycline antibiotic doxorubicin (DOX), macrolide antibiotics erythromycin ethylsuccinate (EES), azithromycin (AZI), clarithromycin (CLA) and roxithromycin (ROX) and 3-dehydrodeoxycholic acid were performed.</p><p>Voltammetric characterization and determination of the above mentioned antibiotics using a renewable silver-amalgam film electrode (Hg(Ag)FE) was performed by direct cathodic square-wave voltammetry (SWV) and by highly sensitive adsorptive square-wave voltammetry (SW-AdSV) in aqueous Britton-Robinson buffer solutions as supporting electrolyte covering the wider pH range. The Hg(Ag)FE response of DOX was monitored in the potential range between -0.20 and -0.80 V. For the trace level analysis the method optimization showed that the optimal conditions for the analytical peak with peak potential (E_p) at -0.57 V vs. SCE were: the pH 6.0, the accumulation potential -0.20 V, and the accumulation time 140 s. In the model solutions, DOX was determined in the concentration range of 4.99-59.64 ng mL^-1. The developed SWAdSV method was applied for the determination of DOX in spiked human urine sample. The lowest concentration of DOX of 9.89 ng mL^-1 in voltammetric vessel was determined with the relative standard deviation (RSD) less than 6%. As for the investigated macrolides, they showed reduction signals in fairly negative potential range. During direct cathodic SWV investigations conducted over the potential range from -0.75 V to -2.00 V vs. SCE, either one or two reduction peaks were obtained in the&nbsp; potential range from -1.5 to -1.9 V. For analytical purposes concerning the development of direct cathodic SWV and adsorptive stripping SWV methods the neutral&nbsp; and slightly alkaline media were suitable as pH 7.0 with E_p at -1.67 V vs.&nbsp; SCE for ROX and EES and pH 7.2 and pH 7.4 with E_p at -1.85 V and -1.64 V vs. SCE for AZI and CLA, respectively. Based on the cyclic voltammograms recorded at these pH values, adsorptioncontrolled electrode kinetics process can be proposed for all four investigated compounds. The water suppressed ¹H NMR measurements in the pH range between 6.0 and 10.5 indicated that the macrolide molecules at the optimal analytical conditions are predominantly in protonated form via their tertiary amino groups which supported in all four cases their adsorption on the appropriately polarized Hg(Ag)FE electrode. The optimized direct cathodic SWV methods showed good linearity in concentration ranges 4.81-23.3 &mu;g mL^-1, 4.53-29.8 &mu;g mL^-1, 1.96-28.6&nbsp; &mu;g mL^-1, and 1.48-25.9 &mu;g mL^-1 for AZI, EES, CLA and ROX, respectively. The SW-AdSV methods resulted in the linear responses at lower concentration ranges as 1.0-2.46 &mu;g mL^-1, 0.69- 2.44 &mu;g mL^-1, 0.05-0.99 &mu;g mL^-1 and 0.10-0.99 &mu;g mL^-1, for AZI, EES, CLA and ROX, respectively. The RSD for all developed methods was not higher than 1.5% except the SWV method for AZI with 4.7%. The direct cathodic SWV method was successfully applied for the determination of EES in the pharmaceutical preparation Eritromicin^&reg;, while SW-AdSV was tested in the case of the spiked urine sample and for determination of ROX in pharmaceutical preparation Runac^&reg;. In all above cases, the standard addition method was used. The reliability and accuracy of the above procedures in the case of EES determination in model system and pharmaceutical preparation Eritromicin^&reg; were validated by comparing them with those obtained by means of HPLC-DAD measurements.</p><p>After initial study of 3-dehydro-deoxycholic acid/3-dehydro-deoxycholate by glassy carbon electrode, where the absence of any reduction peak was observed in the Britton-Robinson buffer solutions between pH 5.0 and 11.8 by direct cathodic SWV, a bismuth-film was electrodeposited ex situ on the same glassy carbon electrode surface (BiF-GCE) from the usually used plating solution (0.02 mol L^-1 Bi(NO₃)₃, 1.0 mol L^-1 HCl and 0.5 mol L^-1 KBr) and such prepared film-electrode was applied for the characterization and determination of the the target analyte in alkaline media. The reduction signal of analytical importance was observed only by BiF-GCE in Britton-Robinson buffer solutions with pH values between 9.5 and 11.8 in adsorptive stripping square-wave voltammetry working regime, while in the case of the direct cathodic SWV experimental protocol only a very poor reduction peak was obtained. The optimized experimental conditions for the 3-dehydro-deoxycholate determination consist of the optimized electrode conditioning including the electrochemical cycling of the <em>ex situ </em>prepared BiF-GCE potentials in the potential span between -1.0 and -2.0 V vs. SCE (nearly 15 times) in the Britton-Robinson supporting electrolyte pH 11.8 till the stabilization of the baseline current, and the application of two key parameters of the adsorptive square-wave voltammetric protocol: the accumulation time as 30 s and accumulation potential as -1.0 V vs. SCE. Because of the relative asymmetry of the obtained reduction signals of the target analyte with peak E_p at -1.35 V vs. SCE, which is still present in the case of the SW-AdSV, the quantification of the target analyte was based on the linear correlation between peak area of the reduction signal and its appropriate concentrations, and reached limit of detection is 1.43 &mu;g mL^-1 and with two linear ranges of calibration curve from 4,76 &mu;g mL^-1 to 13.0 &mu;g mL^-1 and from 13,0 &mu;g mL^-1 to 23,1 &mu;g mL^-1 for the development of analytical method. The RSD of the method&nbsp; was 3.22%. Additional experiments were performed applying GCE with rectangular form (area 35.32 cm²) modified with ex situ prepared bismuth-film for the electrolysis of the target analyte which was performed at the potential -1.55 V (nearly the peak maxima of the target analyte) vs. SCE. The solution of interest was sampled at the beginning of the experiment, after 2.5 h and after 4.5 h of treatment. Such samples were analysed by simply water suppressing ¹H NMR measurements in the buffered solution at pH 11.8. It can be assumed that during electrolysis of 3-dehydrodeoxycholate the reduction of the keto group present in the structure of the target analyte can be occurred.</p><p>Driven by earlier literature data about the fact that some of the target macrolide antibiotics as e.g. azithromycin showed oxidation behavior at a carbon paste and gold working electrodes detailed characterization and determination of four target macrolide antibiotics were performed on classical carbon paste electrode (CPE) constituted only from graphite powder and paraffin oil with optimized direct anodic SWV methods. In the cases of EES and AZI differential pulse voltammetric (DPV) methods were tested for the same purpose as well. The key parameter in the case of the development of the analytical voltammetric methods is the selection of the pH value of the supporting electrolyte where the shape/simmetry and intensity of the oxidation peak were the criteria. As the appropriate pH value for determination of EES by SWV method the pH 8.0 was selected with E_p at 0.83 V vs. SCE while in the case of the DPV method the pH 12.0 with E_p at 0.55 V vs. SCE was the most suitable for analytical&nbsp; purpose. As for AZI determination, in the case of both SWV and DPV methods the pH 7.0 was the most appropriate supporting electrolyte with the Ep of analytical signal at 0.85 V and 0.80 V vs. SCE, respectively, while in the case of CLA and ROX which were investigated only with SWV method for the analytical purposes the pH 12.0 was the most suitable with E_p at 0.65 V and at 0.63 V vs. SCE. The obtained detection limits applying the bare CPE and the direct anodic SWV are mainly&nbsp; in submicrogram concentration range as 0.17 &mu;g mL^-1; 0.32 &mu;g mL^-1 and 0.30 &mu;g mL^-1 for EES, AZI, and ROX and in the low microgram concentration range as 1.43 &mu;g mL^-1 for the CLA, respectively. The developed method succesfully tested for the determination of ROX in the commercial formulation, Runac^&reg; tablet. In the case of the optimized DPV methods the obtained detection limits for EES and AZI are in the low microgram concentration range 1.03 &mu;g mL^-1 and 1.53 &mu;g mL^-1, respectively. For the improvement of the sensitivity for AZI the DPV method was tested in combination with a&nbsp; CPE working electrode surface modified with gold nanoparticles with diameter of 10 nm (Au-CPE) and reached the limit of detection was 0.95 &mu;g mL^-1 at E_p of 0.80 V vs. SCE. The RSD of the method in the case of the Au-CPE is 3.5% while in the case of the native CPE 6.0%. The linearity of the Au-CPE based analytical method is twice wider then it is case with the bare CPE applying protocol.</p><p>Based on the obtained results it can be conclude that the appropriate combination of the optimized voltammetric pulse techniques and the environmentally friendly and easy to use working electrodes as Hg(Ag)FE, BiF-GCE and CPE together with Au-CPE resulted in the development of reliable analytical method either in the oxidation or reduction studies, often allowing trace level determination of pharmacological importance target analytes in simpler and in some case complexes systems.</p>