The main goal of this paper is to provide complete view about financial crises. Paper is di-vided into the six chapters whereas we explore the definition of crises, than history, causes, indicators and anti-crisis precautions. In last chapter we apply all theoretical observations to case study of Nordic banking crises from the beginning of the 90s in last century. We can't expect the crises to vanish completely because they are natural part of both finan-cial system and whole economy but for which they are extremely dangerous too and that's why the crisis, when it breaks out, must be at every moment managed and under control.

This master thesis deals with the impact of the debt crisis on the financial system in Germany. The aim is to prepare an analysis of the impact of the debt crisis on the stability of German financial system, assess individual consequences in the comparison with other world economies and give a prediction of possible future developments in the banking and capital market in Germany. The first chapter defines the financial system in general and describes the theory of the individual components within the financial system. The second chapter focuses on a specific definition of the financial system in Germany and analyzes in detail the various financial markets from a historical perspective. In the third chapter there is an analysis of the development of debt and banking crisis in Germany. The last chapter deals with clearing payment system TARGET2, describes the impacts of the debt crisis, evaluate current state of the German financial system and predicts the future development as well.

This diploma thesis is focused on measures, which have been adopted in Iceland due to the crisis. The first part of the thesis follows up causes and a course of the Icelandic banking crisis in order to understand the situation which the Icelandic authorities had to respond. Subsequently there are outlined measures which are adopted and in the last part these measures are evaluated. Emphasis is placed on analysing the measures of capital controls, banking sector restructuring and fiscal consolidation. All measures have achieved their objectives and have had significant impact on current recovery. Therefore at the end of the thesis is discussed the possibility of these measures applicability in other countries.

Структура магистерской диссертации включает в себя введение, три главы, заключение и список использованных источников. В первой главе рассмотрены теоретические основы, российский и зарубежный подход к определению банковских кризисов и причин их возникновения. Во второй главе исследована структура финансовой политики кредитной организации и ее изменение в период кризиса. В третьей главе разработаны рекомендации по совершенствованию финансовой политики на основе инструментов антикризисного менеджмента. В заключении сформированы основные выводы. / The structure of the master's thesis includes an introduction, three chapters, conclusion and list of references. In the first chapter, the theoretical foundations, Russian and foreign approaches to the definition of banking crises and their causes are considered. The second chapter examines the structure of the financial policy of a credit institution and its changes during the crisis. In the third chapter, recommendations for improving financial policy based on anti-crisis management tools are developed. In conclusion, the main conclusions are formed.

Yes / This study proposes an optimisation-based “benefit-of-the-doubt” (BoD) methodological framework for developing a new multidimensional index of bank stability. The proposed index has the ability to serve as a potent policy tool that overcomes the downsides of accounting- and market-based measures of bank stability. This data-driven approach generates endogenous weights for aggregating bank stability indicators and dimensions. Further, we integrate the BoD framework with a metafrontier approach, which we call a “meta-BoD framework”. The final outcomes of the suggested framework go beyond a scalar measure of bank stability and provide the unique weighting matrix that offers valuable policy-relevant insights about the most precarious areas of stability that require the attention of management and regulators for both micro- and macro-level policy interventions. In addition, it draws insightful information about the instability gaps across heterogenous bank groups. The study presents an illustrative example of the proposed framework to obtain a bank stability index using the dataset of 76 Indian banks operating between 2014 and 2018. The bank stability index is made up of 14 financial ratio indicators covering five dimensions of stability: asset quality, management efficiency, capital adequacy, profitability and liquidity. The findings offer the detailed information required for comprehending the evolution of bank stability and assessing instability gaps across bank groups.

The 2008 eurozone financial crisis has only worsened as of summer 2011 raising questions about the economic future of the eurozone and sending shock waves through economies around the world. Greece was the first state to receive a bailout from the European Union and the International Monetary Fund, surprisingly followed only six months later by Ireland. The goal of this thesis is to analyze the challenges posed to smaller, weaker economies within the eurozone, specifically Greece and Ireland, since the recent eurozone financial crisis. This study is based on the experiences of both Greece and Ireland as very different members of the single currency. How and why did these states meet the criteria for euro convergence? To what extent was there support for the euro in both countries in the past? To what extent is there support today after the near collapse of both economies and the rescue packages brought about by the EU? As a result of the recent financial crisis, Greece and Ireland are facing difficulties with the terms of European economic and monetary union. Since these smaller economies are, among other reasons, unable to devalue the currency in order to regain economic competitiveness as members of the single currency, they are recognizing that the eurozone's economic structure may not adequately address their national economic vulnerabilities during times of crisis. Because of this and the worsening economic conditions in both Greece and Ireland in 2011, I hypothesize that these states are "fraying" the edges of the eurozone, or increasingly degrading the eurozone's specific economic relationships, and demonstrating this through a growing skepticism of the economic benefits to smaller, weaker economies as members of the eurozone. Additionally, citizens of both states are indicating this skepticism by increasingly separating from the parties and policies that support eurozone membership in their states, as demonstrated by the political shifts in each state since the crisis began. In order to study the phenomenon of "fraying" and address the question of the challenges posed to the smaller, weaker economies and their incorporation into the eurozone, I analyze the effects of the debt crisis in Greece and Ireland in terms of the EU/IMF bailouts, the austerity measures each state took in response to the crisis, and the resulting national political changes. I found that neither Greek nor Irish citizens were unequivocally growing skeptical of their membership in the single currency. In fact, citizens in both states still support the idea of the euro. However, there did appear to be a certain element of dislocation of support between these two states and the eurozone in the aversion each has to the terms of their bailouts. The empirical work to study this question includes secondary scholarly reading, national and supranational monetary and political policy analysis, and analysis of national and supranational economic indicators. The three main topics analyzed in this study are the EU/IMF bailouts, the austerity measures taken in each state due to the crisis, and what may be the resulting national political changes. The effects of the three key issue areas discussed in this thesis are studied in both Greece and Ireland. / Master of Arts

A intervenção no Banco Santos, em novembro de 2004, propiciou o surgimento de uma crise de liquidez em um segmento bem delimitado do mercado bancário brasileiro. O presente estudo procurou caracterizar e dimensionar o fenômeno com base em dados contábeis e informações publicamente disponíveis de 84 instituições do mercado. Utilizou-se a análise gráfica associada à análise de correlação para avaliar o comportamento dos saldos das contas Depósitos antes e após a intervenção. Como resultado, os bancos foram segregados em 5 grupos. O grupo que agregou os maiores bancos do mercado passou a ser o grupo de controle para a análise. A delimitação do grupo dos bancos, presumivelmente, contagiados (grupo de estudo) possibilitou avaliar a evolução dos resgates de depósitos e o papel das carteiras de crédito e de títulos como provedoras de liquidez. A análise realçou a importância dos depósitos compulsórios sobre depósitos a prazo como reserva de liquidez. Determinou-se também o volume de créditos cedidos ao longo do período. Concluiu-se que houve uma mudança no perfil das carteiras de crédito dos bancos afetados, com um aumento do percentual aprovisionado para risco de crédito, aproximando-o dos valores do grupo de controle, que utiliza critérios mais conservadores. Procurou-se, por fim, cotejar os eventos observados e as características do sistema financeiro brasileiro com o arcabouço teórico e empírico existente, principalmente em relação a dois aspectos: fundamentos que justificam o exercício da supervisão bancária e teoria das cascatas de informações analisada no âmbito das corridas bancárias. / The intervention on a small bank (banco Santos), in November 2004, has provoked a liquidity crisis on a specific segment of the Brazilian banking market. The objective of this case study has been to assess and characterize the phenomenon, based on balance sheet data and public information about 84 financial institutions of the market. Through graphical analysis associated with statistical correlation analysis, the behavior of the deposit account, before and after the intervention, was determined. As a result banks have been classified on five different groups. The group with the biggest banks was designed as the control group and banks that have showed loss of deposits and could have been, potentially, affected by a liquidity crisis were denominated as study group. The definition of the, presumable, contaminated group of banks has permitted to assess the evolution of deposits? withdraws as well as the role of the credit and security portfolios as providers of liquidity. The analysis has shown the importance of the reserve requirements over time deposits as a liquidity reservoir. It has also been determined the volume of credit transferred along the period of analysis. The conclusion is that the credit loss provision has augmented, getting closer to the values of the control group that uses more conservative provision standards. This study has also evaluated the observed events and the characteristics of the Brazilian financial system, with theoretical and experimental background, mainly focusing two aspects: fundaments that justify the exercise of banking supervision and the theory of information cascades on basis of the bank runs.

Os depositantes, ao aplicarem seus recursos nos bancos, delegam a estes a função de monitoramento dos tomadores de empréstimos e, com isso, podem concentrar seus esforços em monitorar a instituição bancária. A disciplina de mercado ex-post é exercida na eventualidade de os bancos assumirem riscos excessivos, e de os depositantes, ao serem informados de tal fato, serem capazes de agir no sentido de disciplinar os bancos, seja pela requisição de taxas de juros mais elevadas, seja pelo saque de seus depósitos. A disciplina de mercado ex-ante é exercida sobre os gestores dos bancos que, conhecedores das conseqüências de assumirem riscos excessivos para suas instituições, preferem não tomar essa atitude. Um dos veículos de informação para o exercício do monitoramento, e subsídio para as ações de disciplinamento, são os demonstrativos contábeis divulgados periodicamente. A aplicação dos princípios contábeis faculta ao gestor o exercício da discricionariedade na apuração das acumulações contábeis, accruals. Essa possibilidade permite que a discricionariedade seja exercida de forma oportunística, prática conhecida genericamente na literatura contábil como manipulação contábil / gerenciamento de resultados, com o propósito de iludir o usuário da informação contábil e levar à obtenção de benefícios tanto para os bancos como pessoalmente para seus gestores. O objetivo desta tese foi verificar a existência de evidências empíricas de que as acumulações contábeis discricionárias influenciam o exercício da disciplina de mercado exercida pelos depositantes dos bancos brasileiros. O estudo efetuou a separação das acumulações contábeis não-discricionárias e discricionárias por meio da utilização das variáveis de despesas e saldo de provisão para créditos de liquidação duvidosa, saldo e sua variação das operações de crédito, saldo e sua variação das operações em atraso, operações registradas como prejuízo e, além disso, inova com a consideração do risco das operações de crédito por meio da utilização, como proxy do risco, da taxa de juros das operações de crédito. Utiliza modelos econométricos para avaliar a influência das acumulações contábeis discricionárias na disciplina de mercado, por meio da utilização das variáveis de taxa de juros e variação dos volumes de depósitos, índice de alavancagem, despesas de provisão para créditos de liquidação duvidosa, despesas de pessoal, razão das receitas de prestação de serviço e outras despesas administrativas, retorno dos ativos e seu desvio da média amostral e liquidez, além de variáveis de controle. Quanto à formulação teórica, recorreu-se, sob o aspecto econômico, à teoria do monitoramento delegado; sob o aspecto contábil, à abordagem positiva da contabilidade; e, por fim, sob o aspecto econométrico, ao método generalizado dos momentos sistêmico (GMM-sis). Obtiveram-se dados públicos e próprios do Banco Central do Brasil, relativos a 102 bancos, os quais foram tratados para contemplar os efeitos de escala das instituições por meio de normalizações pelos ativos totais e créditos totais, onde aplicável e, também, os efeitos inflacionários, por meio do deflacionamento pelo IPCA. Nos resultados obtidos, foram encontrados indícios da existência da prática de disciplina de mercado por parte dos depositantes, conforme estudos já realizados no Brasil. Também foram encontrados indícios de que a prática de manipulação contábil efetuada por meio das acumulações contábeis discricionárias tem influência no exercício da disciplina de mercado, no sentido de reduzir as taxas de juros negociadas entre os bancos e os depositantes, ocasionando transferência de renda dos depositantes para os bancos. Isso significa que os gestores dos bancos logram êxito ao manipularem os resultados contábeis, por meio da utilização das acumulações contábeis discricionárias, e iludem os depositantes ao obterem taxas de juros inferiores às que deveriam ser pagas. Isto sugere que o mercado não é eficiente para tratar as informações contábeis publicadas pelos bancos. / When the depositors invest their money in the banks they delegate the monitoring function of the borrowers to the bank and can concentrate their efforts in monitoring the banks. The market discipline ex-post occurs in the event of the bank taking excessive risks and, knowing that, the depositors can act in the sense of disciplining the banks by requiring greater interest rates or withdrawing their deposits. The market discipline ex-ante occurs when the bank managers, knowing the consequences of assuming excessive risks, decide not take them. One of the vehicles of information to exercise such monitoring, and subside the actions to discipline the banks, are the accounting reports periodically published. The use of the accounting principles allows the managers to calculate the accruals discretionary. This possibility facilitates the use of the discretionarity in an opportunistic way, known in the literature as accounting manipulation / earnings management, with the objective to mislead the user of accounting information and obtain benefits to the bank or to its managers. The objective of this study is to verify the existence of empirical evidence that the discretionary accruals influence the exercise of the market discipline practiced by the depositors of Brazilian banks. The study separates the accounting accruals non-discretionary and discretionary using the variables of allowance and provision for loan losses, outstanding loans and its changes, non-performing credits and its changes, and credit write-offs. Also, it innovates by considering the risks of credit operations through the use of the loans interest rate as credits risk proxy. It utilizes econometric models to evaluate the influence of the discretionary accruals in the market discipline, by using variables of the deposits interest rates and volume changes, leverage index, provision for loan losses, payroll expenses, the ratio services revenue and other administrative expenses, return on assets and its deviation from sample average and other control variables. The theoretical approach utilizes the theory of delegate monitoring in the economics aspects, the positive accounting approach in the accounting aspects, and the systemic generalized method of moments (GMM-sis) in the econometric aspects. Banco Central do Brasils public and private data on 102 banks was used and processed to contemplate institutions scale effects, which were normalized by dividing them by total assets or by total loans where applicable and, to contemplate the inflations aspects, by deflating the data by consumer price index, IPCA. And in fact it were found evidence in the results obtained that there is a depositors market discipline practice, confirming studies done in Brazil, and that the accounting manipulation, through discretionary accruals, influence the market discipline in the sense of lowering the interest rates negotiated between the banks and the depositors, and thus allowing a transfer of wealth between them. This means that the banks managers are successful in manipulating the accounting results through discretionary accruals and mislead the depositors, which get interest rates lower than should be paid. This suggests that the market is not efficient to process the banks published accounting information.

A contabilidade a valor justo tem sido discutida desde meados do século passado; porém, tomou força maior a partir de publicações recentes do FASB (Financial Accounting Standards Board) e do IASB (International Accounting Standards Board). Mais recentemente, em resposta à crise global de 2008, inicialmente chamada de crise do subprime, a SEC (Securities Exchange Comission), o FASB e o IASB rediscutiram exaustivamente este critério de mensuração, com o objetivo de detectar falhas que poderiam ter deflagrado ou agravado a crise, e também a fim de esclarecer como o valor justo deve ser estimado no caso de mercados ilíquidos ou ausência de um mercado ativo. Esta dissertação questiona se, na visão de especialistas em economia e mercado financeiro, a contabilidade a valor justo teve papel decisivo na deflagração ou agravamento da crise financeira mundial. A primeira parte deste trabalho se desenvolve primariamente com base nos pronunciamentos do IASB e do FASB sobre o valor justo na contabilidade, e tem por finalidade a revisão de alguns conceitos sobre mensuração e, principalmente, buscar o entendimento da teoria e da aplicabilidade da contabilidade baseada em valores de mercado. Na segunda parte, são estudadas diferentes teorias sobre a crise, culminando no assunto a contabilidade e a crise financeira mundial. A parte empírica do trabalho consiste na realização de entrevistas com grandes especialistas em economia e mercado financeiro. O estudo é concluído com base não só nas entrevistas, mas também nos estudos recentes da SEC, do IASB e do FASB, e na literatura sobre a crise, que evidenciam que, entre diversos fatores que podem ter levado o mundo a esta crise, a contabilidade a valor justo teve papel pouco relevante. Pelo contrário, ainda colaborou com um diagnóstico mais rápido. / The fair value accounting has been discussed since the middle of last century, however, it became stronger after recent publications of FASB (Financial Accounting Standards Board) and IASB (International Accounting Standards Board). More recently, in response to the global crisis of 2008, initially called as subprime crisis, SEC (Securities Exchange Commission), FASB and IASB have rediscussed a lot this measurement criterion, with the objective of detecting flaws that could have started off or worsened the crisis, and also explain how the fair value should be estimated in case of non-liquid markets or in the absence of an active market. This dissertation asks, from economy and financial market specialists point of view, if the fair value accounting had a decisive role in the explosion or in the aggravation of the global crisis. The first part of this job is developed primarily based on IASB and FASB pronouncements about fair value accounting, with the purpose of reviewing some concepts about measurement and, mainly, look for an understanding of the theory and applicability of an accounting based on market values. In the second part, different theories about crisis are studied, culminating in the subject fair value accounting and the global crisis. The empiric part of the job consists of interviews with great specialists in economy and financial market. The study is concluded based not only on the interviews, but also on the recent studies of SEC, IASB and FASB, and on the literature about crisis, that evidence that, among several factors that might have led the world to this crisis, the fair value accounting had a small relevant role. Instead, the fair value collaborated yet with a faster diagnosis.

This dissertation analyzes the emergence of the Austro-Hungarian Bank (OeUB) as a modern lender of last resort (LLR) between 1868 and 1914. In order to evaluate policy responses to specific periods of financial distress, an in-depth knowledge of the context and dynamics at hand is indispensable. Chapter I sets the groundwork for this dissertation. It shows that bank failures during the Austro-Hungarian crisis of 1873 followed mainly from the break-down of a large repo market on the Viennese stock exchange. Credit institutions granted repo loans against securities that turned into highly illiquid and depreciated collateral. Banks that were forced to sell repossessed collateral in response to heavy funding withdrawals had to write-off substantial portions of their repo portfolios and thus incurred heavy losses. This chapter reinterprets the Austro-Hungarian crisis of 1873 as a historical "run on repo". It is the first study to examine a historical repo market crisis using microdata. I use semi-parametric survival analysis as well as stratification techniques new to the literature on bank distress to identify the causes of bank failures. Bank failures in 1873 did not spring from a pure liquidity problem, nor did they derive from a simple solvency shock. The complex roots of bank distress in 1873 posed difficult questions for policy-makers who needed to decide whether and how to intervene. Although central banks may be first-best candidates for the role of a LLR, they can also face constraints which obviate an elastic supply of liquidity during crises. Some of these constraints may be ideational, institutional or technical. Others are driven by market characteristics: quantity rationing can be the result of asymmetric information problems in financial markets. In Chapter II, I study a historical experiment implemented to overcome the specter of a credit rationing LLR during the Austro-Hungarian crisis of 1873. I explore bank-level information on treatment by a LLR mechanism designed as a public-private partnership between the central bank and market players. Drawing on inverse probability weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) to tease out the causal effect of liquidity support, I show that this unconventional LLR was effective in mitigating bank distress: it worked as a remedy for the under-provision of a good particularly desirable in times of crises central bank liquidity. No matter how successful it is in calming financial distress and independently of the concrete form it takes, the LLR always comes at a cost. Moral hazard is a central issue in the literature on last resort lending. In Chapter III, I provide a new explanation for how central banks dealt with moral hazard historically. I focus on one specific component of central banks' risk frameworks: credit limits for discount window customers. I argue that credit limits as operationalized by the Austro-Hungarian Bank (OeUB) after 1878 constituted the backbone of an early form of microprudential regulation that was designed to check moral hazard in normal times. Credit limits empowered the Austro-Hungarian Bank to enforce minimum liquidity and capital standards for its counterparties at the discount window. Rather than contradicting the tenet of free lending in times of distress, credit limits functioned as "contingent rules": enforced in normal times, limits were increased or lifted during liquidity crises perceived as exogenous. Moreover, even during crises, the Bank did not simply relax limits for all credit institutions: it differentiated between banks depending on their fundamentals prior to the crisis. Chapter III provides the first economic interpretation and empirical analysis of the credit limit frameworks employed by central banks in the past.