abstract: Why are human societies so psychologically diverse? The discipline of behavioral ecology is rich in both theory and data on how environments shape non-human animal behavior. However, behavioral ecological thinking has not received much attention in the study of human cultural psychological variation. I propose that ecological relatedness—how genetically related individuals are to others in their proximate environment—is one aspect of the environment that shapes human psychology. I present three studies here that examine the influence of ecological relatedness on multiple aspects of psychology. In the first study, I find that higher levels of ecological relatedness at the nation level is associated with a greater willingness to put oneself at risk for others, greater localized trust, and a stronger sense of belonging to one’s community. In the second and third studies, using experimental manipulations of perceived ecological relatedness, I examine the effects of ecological relatedness on helping behavior across situations, monetary sharing on a dictator game, interpersonal judgments, and alloparenting behaviors. I find that individuals led to perceive higher ecological relatedness became more sensitive to need in potential helping situations. The implications of ecological relatedness for thinking about psychological variation across groups are discussed. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Psychology 2016

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The present study investigated the seasonal and longitudinal variation in the feeding ecology of a group of cuxiús, Chiropotes sagulatus, in the Saracá-Taquera National Forest, in the Brazilian Amazonian state of Pará. For the collection of quantitative behavioral data, the habituated study group, denominated the Bacaba group, was monitored between July 2011 and March 2012 (in all months except September) and November 2014. Data on the behavior and diet of the study group were collected on three to five days per month, based on instantaneous scan sampling, with a two-minute scan being conducted at 10-minute intervals, during which the number of individuals present was counted and samples of food items were collected. The Bacaba group contained 67 members. A total of 35 complete days of observation were conducted, and the general activity budget was Locomotion (41.2%), Rest (30.2%), Foraging (13.5%), and Feeding (8.1%), social interactions and others (6.9%). The normality of the data was evaluated using the Shapiro-Wilk test, variation in the size of subgroups was assessed using Student’s t, seasonal and longitudinal variation in the activity budget and composition of the diet was evaluated using binomial z scores, as well as Jaccard’s similarity index, for the comparison of the taxonomic composition of the diet. There was a tendency for the formation of larger subgroups during the rainy season of 2011, although the difference was not significant. Locomotion increased significantly during the rainy season, when Feeding and Foraging decreased, while Rest and Social Interactions increased significantly in the dry season. The diet of the Bacaba group was dominated by seeds throughout the study period, with high rates of ingestion of immature seeds being recorded during both the dry (59.9%) and rainy (47.7%) seasons, with a significant seasonal difference for seed feeding. Flower parts and the seeds of dry fruit were consumed only during the dry season. Significant differences were found between years in all behavior categories, although the composition of the diet was maintained, despite major modifications in its taxonomic composition, reflecting the capability of the cuxiús to obtain a high quality diet despite seasonal fluctuations in resource availability. The most important plant families in the study group’s diet were the Sapotaceae, Moraceae, Fabaceae, Chrysobalanaceae and Lecythidaceae, which are known to be important for Chiropotes. This study reconfirms the behavioral patterns and diet found in the genus Chiropotes, emphasizing the flexibility of its feeding ecology and energy-maximizing foraging strategy. / Este estudo teve por objetivo avaliar variações sazonais e longitudinais no padrão de agrupamento e ecologia alimentar de um grupo de Chiropotes sagulatus, os cuxiús, na FLONA Saracá-Taquera, estado do Pará, Amazônia Brasileira. O grupo de estudo habituado, denominado Bacaba, foi monitorado entre Julho 2011 e Março 2012 (em todos os meses exceto Setembro) e Novembro 2014. Os dados comportamentais e de dieta foram coletados através do método de varredura instantânea, com duração de dois minutos e intervalo de 10 minutos, sendo coletadas amostras dos itens alimentares e realizada a contagem de indivíduos. O grupo Bacaba continha 67 indivíduos. Foram realizados 35 dias completos de observação e o orçamento de atividades foi Deslocamento (41,2%), Repouso (30,2%), Forrageamento (13,5%) e Alimentação (8,1%), Interações Sociais e Outros (6,9%). Foi realizado teste de Shapiro Wilk para a normalidade dos dados, o teste t de Student para os tamanhos de subgrupos e o teste z binomial para comparações de comportamento e dieta sazonal e longitudinal, além da similaridade de Jaccard para a composição taxonômica da dieta. Houve uma tendência para subgrupos maiores na estação chuvosa e no ano de 2011, mas a diferença não foi significativa. Deslocamento foi significativamente maior na estação chuvosa, quando os comportamentos de Alimentação e Forrageamento foram menores e as atividades de Repouso e Social foram significativamente maiores na estação seca. A dieta do grupo Bacaba apresentou alta ingestão de sementes para todo o período de estudo, e alta frequência de ingestão de sementes imaturas para as duas estações (59,9% estação seca e 47,7% estação chuvosa) com diferença significativa quando o item alimentar foi semente. Os itens partes florais e semente de fruto seco foram ingeridos apenas na estação seca. Todos os comportamentos apresentaram diferenças significativas entre anos, e foram mantidas as proporções dos itens alimentares na dieta mesmo com a baixa similaridade na composição taxonômica, mostrando a flexibilidade dos cuxiús para manter uma dieta de qualidade. As famílias mais importantes para a dieta do grupo foram Sapotaceae, Moraceae, Fabaceae, Chrysobalanaceae e Lecythidaceae, conhecidamente importantes para o gênero. Este estudo apresenta informações que reforçam os padrões comportamentais e de dieta para o gênero Chiropotes, corroborando a flexibilidade em sua ecologia alimentar e estratégia de forrageamento de maximização de energia.

Les réponses comportementales des insectes restent peu connues dès lors qu'on s'éloigne de leur optimum thermique. Les conditions plus extrêmes et variables de température projetées pour les prochaines décennies devraient pousser les organismes à la limite de leur capacité de fonctionnement, dans la mesure où ils ne s'adaptent pas rapidement aux changements. Les réponses comportementales à la température peuvent être kinétiques (résultant de l'accélération/ralentissement des réactions chimiques de l'organisme en fonction de la température) ou intégrées (résultant de l'intégration des informations thermo-sensorielles par le système nerveux central de l'insecte), adaptatives ou contraintes. Distinguer entre ces différents types de réponse permettra de mieux comprendre et prédire la réponse des individus aux nouvelles conditions provoquées par les changements climatiques. Les réponses individuelles pourront alors permettent d’anticiper les conséquences sur les populations. Dans cette thèse, plusieurs comportements d'Anaphes listronoti, un parasitoïde des oeufs du charançon de la carotte (Listronotus oregonensis) ont été observés, à l’intérieur de la fenêtre thermique permettant ses activités. Dans un premier temps, il a été montré que le comportement de marche des femelles A. listronoti ne découlait pas simplement d'une réponse kinétique à la température, mais correspondait à une réponse intégrée telle que l'évitement des conditions thermiques froides et la conservation de l'énergie aux températures élevées. Dans un second temps, l'exploitation d'agrégats d’hôtes a été comparée à différentes températures. La stratégie d'exploitation ne variait pas avec la température, mais des contraintes liées à la manipulation de l'hôte et à la détection des messages chimiques à haute température ont été révélées. Ensuite, le comportement de cour et d'accouplement a été observé en fonction de la température. Les températures suboptimales diminuaient le succès d'accouplement, mais pas le transfert de spermatozoïdes lors d’un accouplement. Des contraintes de reconnaissance entre les partenaires sexuels ont également été observées à températures infra- et supra-optimales. Enfin, un modèle de simulation dynamique intégrant le développement des différents stades de l’insecte et les comportements précédemment étudiés a été conceptualisé. Ce modèle permet de combiner les effets de la température sur les comportements d’un individu et les conséquences sur la population de parasitoïdes, ainsi que sur la population de l’hôte. L’ajout des comportements dans les modèles populationnels n’apporte pas forcément de valeur ajoutée, mais il reste essentiel de les considérer, en particulier dans le cadre des changements climatiques. En effet, si les réponses physiologiques telles que celles associées au développement augmentent jusqu'à un maximum d’environ 35°C, la plupart des comportements deviennent sub-optimaux à partir de 30°C, et cessent presque complètement à 35°C. Dans un contexte de changements climatiques, ces résultats permettent de mieux comprendre et potentiellement prédire les réponses individuelles et populationnelles des insectes aux différentes conditions thermiques. / The behavioural responses of insects remain poorly understood once they move away from their thermal optimum. The more extreme and variable temperature conditions projected for the coming decades should, to the extent that insects do not adapt quickly to changes, push organisms to the limit of their ability to function. Behavioural responses to temperature may be kinetic (resulting from the acceleration/slowing down of the organism's chemical reactions as a function of temperature) or integrated (resulting from the integration of thermo-sensory information by the insect's central nervous system), adaptive or constrained. Distinguishing between these different types of response will help to better understand and predict the response of individuals to new conditions caused by climate change. Individual responses can then be used to infer the consequences on populations. In this thesis, several behaviours of Anaphes listronoti, a parasitoid of the carrot weevil (Listronotus oregonensis) eggs, were observed, depending on the thermal window allowing its activities. Firstly, it was shown that the walking behaviour of A. listronoti females was not simply a kinetic response to temperature, but also corresponded to an integrated response such as avoidance of cold thermal conditions and conservation of energy at high temperatures. In a second step, the exploitation of host patches was compared at different temperatures. The exploitation strategy did not vary with temperature, but constraints related to host handling and detection of chemical cues at high temperatures were revealed. Next, courtship and mating behaviour was observed as a function of temperature. Sub-optimal temperatures decreased mating success, but not sperm transfer during mating. Recognition constraints between sexual partners were also observed at infra- and supra-optimal temperatures. Finally, a model integrating the development of the different stages of the insect and the previously studied behaviours was conceptualized. This model makes it possible to combine the effects of temperature on the behaviour of an individual and the consequences on the parasitoid population, as well as the host population. Adding behaviors to population models does not necessarily add value, but it remains essential to consider them, particularly in the context of climate change. Indeed, while physiological responses such as development increase to a maximum of about 35°C, most behaviours become suboptimal from 30°C onwards, and cease almost completely at 35°C. In a context of climate change, these results allow to better understand and potentially predict the individual and population responses of insects to different thermal conditions.

付記する学位プログラム名: 霊長類学・ワイルドライフサイエンス・リーディング大学院 / 京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第22722号 / 理博第4631号 / 新制||理||1665(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)准教授 Michael Alan Huffman, 准教授 足立 幾磨, 教授 高田 昌彦 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

This study is a collections-based project that employs approximately 1,300 projectile points to investigate behavioral response to the Younger Dryas in north Alabama (12,900 to 11,700 BP). I apply a version of the marginal value theorem to determine how changing resource structures caused changes in projectile point technology. I argue that changes in technology during the Younger Dryas were not conditioned by access or availability of lithic raw material. Instead, variation in technology is likely a response to changes in return rates from hunting and foraging. Further, the changes in hunting return rates correlate with changes in north Alabama forest structure, which were conditioned by the Younger Dryas. To this end, I argue that the sustained impact of the Younger Dryas, and subsequent Holocene warming, had an effect on the subsistence economies of hunter-gatherers living in northern Alabama during this time, which is exhibited by changes in projectile point technology.

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This research aims to develop and evaluate a design framework for creating digital devices that support the exploration of animal behaviors in the wild. In order to carry out this work, it both studies ethology’s foundational ideas through literature and also examines the contemporary principles at a rainforest field station through on-site ethnographies, workshops, design projects, and interactive performances. Based upon these personal and practical investigations, this research then synthesizes a framework to support digital-ethological practice. Finally, this framework is utilized to design additional ethological expeditions and activities in order to assess the framework itself. The resulting framework encourages digital technology that supports four key concepts. Technological Agency pushes for devices that promote understanding of their own internal functions. The tenet of Contextual Crafting leads designers and ethologists to create devices in close proximity to their intended use. Behavioral Immersion promotes visceral interactions between the digital and organismal agents involved. Finally, Open-Endedness challenges researchers to create adaptable tools which strive to generate questions rather than answering them. Overall, this research, referred to as Digital Naturalism, explores a developing design space for computers in the wild.

<p>This thesis combines behavioral observations of African lions (<i>Panthera leo</i>) with genetic analyses, in an attempt to clarify causes and consequences of lion group living. The numerous complex cooperative behaviors of lions present an excellent opportunity to investigate the evolution and maintenance of group living. This thesis focuses on female group living and male dispersal patterns.</p><p>Lion sociality is found to be more complex than previously thought. Short dispersal distances result in strong kinship ties among prides, creating the potential for kin selection to operate among prides. Simultaneously, some prides contained unrelated females, depriving females in such prides of inclusive fitness benefits from group living. Concurrent with short dispersal distances in both males and females, significant genetic differentiation could be detected over relatively short distances in analyses of males. Extensive behavioral observations showed that territorial behaviors were unaffected by kinship ties to intruders. Instead, favorable odds and several environmental conditions were important factors. Space use analyses showed large overlap among prides. Again, kinship did not affect degree of overlap. </p><p>Conclusively, these results show that the ultimate causes of lion sociality remain elusive, but that kin selection may be less important than generally thought. Lion sociality seems to be explicable mainly in terms of direct fitness benefits, which therefore should be given more attention.</p>