Road construction and maintenance throughout the country continues to be one of the largest contributors of sediment pollution to aquatic systems. Though impacts of road networks on aquatic systems can be potentially severe, little work has been performed to evaluate the effect that road spatial location within a watershed has on water quality. To address this issue from a quantitative perspective, a "Road Impact Factor" protocol was designed to identify potential erosion-prone segments of road networks based on road gradient, spatial location based on hydrologic flow length, surface composition, and water control installations. The protocol was developed for two regions in Central Idaho and Eastern Oregon. We then used the hydrologic travel time procedure, developed for use in the Hydrologic Engineering Center Hydrologic Modeling System (HEC-HMS) runoff and routing model, in order to characterize the spatial distribution of potential road runoff impacts within the study areas. Ten macroinvertebrate metrics sensitive to sedimentation (i.e. % Intolerant Taxa, Hilsenhoff Biotic Index, etc.) were analyzed to test the significance of the spatial distribution of Road Impact Factors. These 10 metrics were analyzed under the hypothesis that values will be lower for those study areas that have a higher degree of road impact and a lower distance between the road segments and stream reaches. Results of a quadrant analysis and hierarchical clustering analysis showed hypothesized trends for several metrics in Idaho, though the trends were not strong. No trends were observed in Oregon. The variability in results is likely due to limitations of the input datasets. / Master of Science

Surface coal-mining is a source of selenium (Se) contamination in streams of the Appalachian coalfields. Selenium dynamics in aquatic systems are complex and largely controlled by site-specific factors, but have been understudied in Appalachian headwater streams. In this study, we evaluated the degree and dynamics of Se enrichment and bioaccumulation in headwater streams influenced by coal-mining. Based on Se concentrations in macroinvertebrates collected from 23 headwater streams, nine sites were selected for further study: three reference streams with no history of coal-mining, and six streams influenced by coal mining. Mining-influenced streams were further separated into high-Se and low-Sestreams based on macroinvertebrate tissue Se concentrations. Water-column, sediment, biofilm, leaf detritus, and prey and predator macroinvertebrates were collected and analyzed for Se concentration during two sample periods, Sept. - Oct. 2015 and Feb.-March 2016. Selenium concentrations in all media were found to be elevated in mining-influenced over reference streams and in high-Se over low-Se streams. Selenium dynamics, enrichment in particulate media (sediment, biofilm and leaf detritus) and trophic transfer of Se to prey from particulate media and to predators from prey, did not exhibit major differences among streams of differing Se levels. Water column Se concentrations were predicative of Se concentrations in macroinvertebrate tissues. Findings from this study indicate headwater streams influenced by coal-mining are capable of a high degree of Se bioaccumulation in macroinvertebrate populations. / Master of Science

Bioassessment is the concept of evaluating the ecological condition of habitats by surveying the resident assemblages of living organisms. Conducting bioassessment with benthic macroinvertebrates is still evolving and continues to be refined. There are strongly divided opinions about study design, sampling methods, laboratory analyses, and data analysis. Two issues that are currently being debated about study design for bioassessment in streams were examined here: 1) what habitats within streams should be sampled; 2) and is it necessary to identify organisms to the species level? The influence of habitat sampling design and level of taxonomic identification on the interpretation of ecological conditions of ten small streams in western Virginia was examined. Cattle watering and grazing heavily affected five of these streams (impaired sites). The other five streams, with no recent cattle activity or other impact by man, were considered to be reference sites because they were minimally impaired and represented best attainable conditions. Inferential and non-inferential statistical analyses concluded that multiple habitat sampling design was more effective than a single habitat design (riffle only) at distinguishing impaired conditions, regardless of taxonomic level. It appeared that sampling design (riffle habitat versus multiple habitats) is more important than taxonomic identification level for distinguishing reference and impaired ecological conditions in this bioassessment study. All levels of taxonomic resolution, which were studied, showed that the macroinvertebrate assemblages at the reference and impaired sites were very different and the assemblages at the impaired sites were adversely affected by perturbation. This study supported the sampling of multiple habitats and identification to the family level as a design for best determining the ecological condition of streams in bioassessment. / Master of Science

Excess fine sediment from human activity is a major pollutant to streams across the U.S.; however, distinguishing human-induced sedimentation from natural fine sediment is complex. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recently implemented a protocol for the quantitative field assessment of human-induced sedimentation using measurements of stream geomorphology. Macroinvertebrate community composition, streambed sediment stability, and sediment composition were studied at 49 sites in the James River watershed in central Virginia. Sediment composition was found to be a stronger driver of community composition than sediment stability. Although I was not able to show that macroinvertebrate metrics were related to sediment stability independently of actual fine sediment composition, some metrics, including percent Ephemeridae, a family of burrowing mayflies (order = Ephemeroptera) show promise as valuable tools for regional biologists and resource managers to discriminate among streams considered impaired for sediment pollution.

Devido à importância dos macroinvertebrados bentônicos como bioindicadores da qualidade ambiental e às vantagens de seu emprego como tal, estes organismos foram utilizados para avaliar a possível existência de impacto antropogênico às nascentes localizadas no Parque Estadual do Jaraguá (São Paulo, SP). Para isso, selecionaram-se quatro nascentes, em cada uma das quais foram nas quais foram coletadas amostras de água em cada nascente para a análise de coliformes fecais e das concentrações de nitrogênio e fósforo totais. A coleta de macroinvertebrados bentônicos foi realizada, com o auxílio de um delimitador Surber (área de 0,04m2, malha de 500 ?m), em poções e corredeiras da cada nascente. Este trabalho divide-se em dois capítulos. O primeiro capítulo trata da estrutura da comunidade de invertebrados bentônicos nas nascentes do Parque Estadual do Jaraguá e mostra uma diferenciação entre poções e corredeiras, sendo que as famílias Cyclopidae, Talitridae, Leptoceridae, Psychodidae e Stratiomyidae foram exclusivas de poções, enquanto Perlidae e Simuliidae foram exclusivas de corredeiras, sendo que abundância relativa de Chironomidae foi elevada em ambos os habitats. No segundo capítulo, foram testadas onze métricas para a análise da qualidade ambiental das nascentes do Parque Estadual do Jaraguá (São Paulo, SP), das quais apenas quatro (diversidade de Shannon-Wiener, dominância, EPT/Total e IBFM) mostraram-se úteis para a diferenciação das nascentes não impactadas e impactadas. / Due to the importance of benthic macroinvertebrates to assess water quality and the advantages of their utilization as bioindicators, these organisms were employed to assess the possible antropogenic impact in four streams located in Jaraguá State Park (São Paulo, SP). In each stream the benthic macroinvertebrates were collected in 5 pools and 5 riffles with a Surber sampler (0,04m2, 500 ?m mesh size). This study is divided in two chapters. The first compares the benthic macroinvertebrate community structure between pools and riffles. The families Cyclopidae, Talitridae, Leptoceridae, Psychodidae and Stratiomyidae were present exclusively in pools, while Perlidae and Simuliidae were exclusive of riffles. In both habitats, Chironomidae relative abundance was high. In the second chapter, eleven metrics were tested for the analysis of environmental quality of streams. Four of them (Shannon-Wiener diversity, dominance, EPT/Total, and IBMF) showed differences related to the degree of impact anthropogenic on streams and were used to compose a multimetric index

Lagoas costeiras, são corpos de água doce numerosos ao longo da costa brasileira, destacam-se principalmente como habitats para organismos aquáticos. São no entanto acossistemas sujeitos a grandes impactos antrópicos. No presente trabalho foram estudadas quatro lagoas costeiras da Área de Proteção Ambiental Parque das Dunas, em Salvador, Bahia, em dois períodos sazonais, chuvoso e seco, nos quais as lagoas foram comparadas. A comunidade de macroinvertebrados bentônicos foi utilizada como bioindicadora da qualidade ambiental. Dentre os organismos bentônicos, as larvas da família Chironomidae foram as mais frequentes e abundantes, sendo também estudada a dieta das mesmas com o objetivo de conhecer o papel desses organismos na estrutura e dinâmica trófica destas comunidades, através da observação de itens alimentares presentes no conteúdo de seus tubos digestivos. Os resultados da obtidos evidenciaram que as lagoas Vitória, Junco e Camarão tiveram águas com pH ácido, relativamente bem oxigenadas e de condutividade elétrica moderada em ambos os períodos amostrados. A riqueza de táxons foi moderada nas lagoas Vitória e Junco, variando de 13 a 21 táxons, e baixa nas lagoas do Camarão e Negra variando entre 8 e 14 táxons. Em relação à similaridade na composição das comunidades, as lagoas Vitória e do Camarão foram as mais semelhantes (50%), e a lagoa Negra a mais dissimilar (20%). Os indicadores utilizados evidenciaram que todas as lagoas estão perturbadas e necessitando ações de manejo, porém a Lagoa Negra deve ser priorizada quanto a ações de restauração. Em relação à ecologia trófica das larvas da família Chironomidae, os resultados evidenciaram o consumo de diversos itens alimentares como: algas, pequenos invertebrados, matéria orgânica amorfa e detrito particulado inorgânico. De acordo com o modo de alimentação e os itens consumidos, os diferentes táxons foram classificados em quatro grupos tróficos funcionais distintos: os Coletores - catadores detritívoros, o qual abrangeu a maioria dos gêneros de quironomídeos registrados nas lagoas; os Coletores- catadores herbívoros e os Predadores-onívoros, o qual abrangeu todos os gêneros de Tanypodinae e os Fragmentadores. Pode-se concluir que a onivoria é a provável estratégia que permite a coexistência de organismos de diferentes táxons aumentando assim a riqueza das larvas de Chironomidae nas lagoas costeiras avaliadas. / Coastal lakes are numerous freshwater bodies along Brazilian coast, being principally as habitats for the aquatic biota. They are nevertheless subject to great anthropogenic impacts. In the present work four coastal lakes located in the Protection Area of Parque das Dunas, in Salvador, Bahia, in two contrasting seasonal periods, the dry and the rainy periods, in which the lakes were compared. The benthic macro-invertebrates community was used as bio-indicator of environmental quality. Among the benthic organisms the dipteran larvae of the Chironomidae family were the most frequent and abundant. Their diet was also studied aiming to know the role of these organisms in the structure and trophic-dynamics of theses community by the analysis of the food items in their digestive tube. The results obtained have shown that lakes Vitória, Junco and Camarão had acidic, relatively well oxygenated and of moderate electrical conductivity waters in both periods sampled. The richness of taxa was moderate in lakes Vitória and Junco, varying from13 to 21 taxa, and low in lakes Camarão and Negra, varying between 8 and 14 taxa. Regarding the similarity among communities composition, lakes Vitória and Camarão were the most similar (50%), and Lake Negra the most different (20%). The indicators used evidenced that all lakes are under disturbances and require management actions, however, Lake Negra should be the priority for restauration actions. In relation to the trophic ecology of the Chironomidae larvae, the results evidenced the consumption of many food items as: algae, small invertebrates, decomposing organic matter, and particulate inorganic detritus. According to their feeding modes and consumed items the different taxa were classified in four distinct functional trophic groups: Collector-gatherer-detritivores, that comprised most chironomid taxa recorded in the coastal lakes; the Collector-gatherer-herbivores, the Predator-omnivores comprising all genera of the sub-family Tanypodinae and the Shredders. We concluded that probably omnivory is the strategy allowing the co-existence of organisms from many different taxa, being responsible for the richness of Chironomidae in the benthic communities of the studied coastal lakes.

A study to determine habitat differences of benthic macroinvertebrates was conducted on the upper Strawberry River, Utah. The investigation was part of a large scale project to determine minimum stream flow requirements for trout. The effects of time, habitat, depth and velocity on the distribution of benthic fauna were evaluated. Samples of benthic invertebrates (146 total) were collected every 2 months at 8 stations on the river from November, 1975 through August, 1976. Representatives of 59 taxa were collected. Eight taxa comprised 90 percent of the mean annual community standing crop in numbers. Biomass was not dominated by any group of taxa. Community standing crop decreased from late Fall 1975 until early Summer 1976. The largest increase in standing crop occurred during August. Prediction of benthic distribution through the use of depth and velocity categories was unsuccessful. Three-dimensional plots of the relative density of a taxon versus depth and velocity indicated the contagious nature of the animals' distributions but their preference for specific categories could not be demonstrated. The results suggested that macroinvertebrates could tolerate large variations in current and depth and that these physical factors are only indirectly related to faunal distribution. Results of analysis of variance and covariance showed time to be the factor which influenced the distribution of most taxa (85%), followed by the time x habitat interaction (20%), velocity (18%), habitat (11%), and depth (9%). Comparisons in animal abundance were made between 4 riffles and 4 ''pools". These two habitats did not differ significantly in substrate type or velocity, however depth did show significant differences. Results of nonparametric tests suggested that the majority of taxa migrated into "pools" during periods of snow, ice, and low flows, an indication that "pools" may provide refuge to macroinvertebrates during periods of stream dewatering and diversion.

A study of the aquatic invertebrate communities from two locations (Location 1 and Location 2) within the Matapouri catchment in Northland, New Zealand, was conducted to assess community structure in differing local-scale habitats. Four data collection methods were utilised generating 33,058 adult or larval invertebrates. The sampling methods comprised benthic kick-sampling, sticky trapping, light trapping, and emergence trapping. For the sticky trapping and light trapping, sampling was carried out at three different sites (Sites 1–3) within each location. The sites were situated within three habitat types; native forest, native forest-fringe, and raupo wetland. Emergence trapping also commenced within the three sites, at both locations, but was discontinued after two months, due to the equipment being destroyed by consecutive flooding events (method described in Appendix 1). Benthic sampling was carried out within the Forest and Forest-fringe habitats. Benthic sampling, sticky trapping, and light trapping were carried out following a monthly schedule between June and November 2005. Conductivity, pH, and water temperature measurements were taken concurrently with benthic sampling on a monthly basis, while water velocity and substrate measurements were taken once to assist in habitat characterisation. Overall, 71 taxa were recorded by benthic sampling over the six month period, with a mean of approximately 30 taxa per site per month. In comparison with similar studies elsewhere in New Zealand, a figure of around 30 taxa per sample was high. The benthic macroinvertebrate fauna at all sites was dominated by Trichoptera (19 taxa), Diptera (16 taxa) and Ephemeroptera (10 taxa). This pattern of diversity is similar to that reported in other New Zealand studies. However, in contrast to previous studies, the leptophlebiid mayfly genus Deleatidium was not numerically dominant over the rest of the community, and other leptophlebiid genera (Acanthophlebia, Atalophlebioides, Mauiulus and Zephlebia) were equally represented, possibly reflecting niche partitioning between the groups. The genus Nesameletus was not recorded at any site, despite being one of the core mayfly species in New Zealand streams. The rare mayfly Isothraulus abditus was recorded at one of the forest locations. There are no published records of this species from Northland. Although acknowledged as another of the core New Zealand benthic taxa, the hydropsychid caddisfly Aoteapsyche was not recorded during the study. However, another hydropsychid, Orthopsyche, was commonly recorded, and these may be filling a similar niche to the Aoteapsyche genus. In contrast to the Trichoptera, Diptera, and Ephemeroptera, the Plecoptera fauna was relatively depauperate, probably reflecting the warmer climate of the region and lack of temperature-buffered spring-fed streams. Surprisingly, Zelandobius, a core New Zealand genus, was absent but is regularly recorded in Northland. A species of conservation interest, Spaniocercoides watti, currently recognised as a Northland endemic, was recorded in low numbers. There were no apparent trends in diversity or abundance of benthic invertebrates over time. Also, there were no significant differences in species diversity between the two locations. However, in many cases, taxa were more abundant at Location 2. This may have been due to steeper gradients at Location 2, and the consequent effects on substrate size and streambed stability, as all other physical factors appeared similar between locations. Although several significant differences of individual benthic taxa were recorded, no broad effect of habitat (sites) on species diversity was observable. However, at Location 2, abundances were significantly higher at Site 3 (Forest) compared to Site 2 (Forest-fringe). The reasons were uncertain, but may be attributed to higher retention of allochthonous organic materials, trapped by in-stream cover and larger substrates. Investigations of adult stages by sticky traps supported benthic results recording community compositions and abundances dominated by Trichoptera and Diptera. Plecoptera were poorly represented. Location 2 recorded higher abundances of taxa, particularly Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera. Investigations of adult stages by light traps however did not produce any statistically significant differences in abundances between sites, between locations, or between sites across locations, and it is believed to be due to limited sampling replication combined with some biases of light trapping. This study indicates that the aquatic invertebrate community at Matapouri is diverse but also reasonably representative. Several rare or uncommon insects inhabit the catchment. It is therefore important that Iwi and the local Landcare Group, who invited and supported this research, together with the Department of Conservation, continue their efforts in protecting these areas. The resident fauna have the capacity to restock areas downstream, which are intended to be improved and restored through sediment control and riparian management.

The following four broad aims were addressed in this study. (1) To ascertain whether the characteristics of the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages within the different nearshore marine habitat types identified by Valesini et al. (2003) on the lower west coast of Australia differ significantly, and whether the pattern of those spatial differences matches those among the environmental characteristics that were used to distinguish those habitat types; (2) To develop a quantitative approach for classifying nearshore habitats in estuarine waters that employs readily-available data for a range of enduring environmental characteristics, and to use that approach to classify the various habitat types present in nearshore waters of the Swan-Canning Estuary on the lower west coast of Australia; (3) To test the hypothesis that the characteristics of the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in the in the Swan-Canning Estuary differ significantly among nearshore habitat types, and that the pattern of those differences matches that among the environmental characteristics used to distinguish those habitat types and (4) To test the hypothesis that, as a result of environmental changes in the Swan-Canning Estuary, the characteristics of the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages at various habitats in this estuary in 1986/7 differ from those in 2003/4. To address the first aim, benthic macroinvertebrates were sampled seasonally for one year in the subtidal waters and intertidal zone (upper and lower swash zones) at the six nearshore habitat types that were identified by Valesini et al. (2003) on the lower west coast of Australia. The habitat types, which differed mainly in the extent of their exposure to wave activity and whether seagrass and/or nearshore reefs were present, had been distinguished quantitatively using values for a suite of seven statistically-selected enduring environmental characteristics. The faunal samples yielded a total of 121 species representing eight phyla, among which the Polychaeta, Malacostraca and Bivalvia were the most speciose classes and contributed ~ 38, 23 and 10%, respectively, to the total number of individuals. The total number of species and mean density of macroinvertebrates was far greater at the most protected habitat type (1), which also contained dense beds of seagrass, than at any other habitat type, i.e. 70 species and 209.2 individuals 0.1 m-2, compared to 32 species and 36.9 individuals 0.1 m-2 at the most exposed habitat type (6), which had a substrate comprised only of sand. Differences among habitat type influenced the benthic macroinvertebrate species composition to a greater extent than differences among either zones or seasons. Significantly different faunal compositions were detected among those latter two factors only at the most protected habitat type. The faunal assemblage at habitat type 1 was clearly the most distinct from those at the other five habitat types, particularly in the subtidal zone (R-statistics=0.642-0.831, p=0.1%), and was typified by five abundant polychaete species that were adapted to deposit-feeding. In contrast, the fauna at habitat type 6 was typified by four crustacean species and a species of bivalve and polychaete, whose mobility and tough external surface facilitated their survival and feeding in those turbulent waters. The extents of the differences in species composition among the six habitat types was significantly matched with that among the suite of enduring environmental characteristics that distinguished those habitat types, particularly in the case of the subtidal zone (Rho=0.676). Such results indicated that the environmental variables used to distinguish the nearshore habitat types could be used to reliably predict the types of benthic macroinvertebrate species likely to occur at any site along the lower west coast of Australia. The above biological validation of the nearshore marine habitat classification scheme developed by Valesini et al. (2003) provided the justification for the approach to the second broad aim of this study, namely to develop a quantitative scheme for classifying habitat types in the Swan-Canning Estuary. This approach was similar to that employed by Valesini et al. (2003) in that it considers that differences among habitat types are well reflected by differences in a suite of enduring environmental variables. However, it improves on that earlier method by employing a completely objective and quantitative approach. Thus, a large number of environmentally-diverse nearshore sites (102) were initially selected throughout the Swan-Canning Estuary and a suite of 13 enduring environmental variables quantified at each using remotely-sensed images of the estuary in a Geographic Information System. Such variables were chosen to reflect either (i) the type of substrate and submerged vegetation present, (ii) the extent of exposure to wave action or (iii) the location of the site within the estuary with respect to its vicinity to marine and fresh water sources. These data were then subjected to the CLUSTER routine and associated SIMPROF procedure in the PRIMER v6 multivariate statistical package to quantitatively identify those groups of sites that did not differ significantly in their environmental characteristics, and thus represented habitat types. Eighteen habitat types were identified, which were shown to well reflect spatial differences in a suite of non-enduring water quality and sediment characteristics that were measured in situ at a range of estuarine sites during both summer and winter in 2005 (Rho=0.683 and 0.740, respectively, p=0.1%). However, those latter environmental characteristics required far more time in the field and laboratory to quantify than the enduring variables used to identify the habitat types. Benthic macroinvertebrates were sampled during summer and winter in 2005 in the shallow subtidal regions (~1 m depth) at sites representing eight of the habitat types identified in the Swan-Canning Estuary. These samples contained a total of 51 and 36 species during summer and winter, respectively, and, in both seasons, represented nine phyla, namely Annelida, Crustacea, Mollusca, Sipuncula, Nematoda, Platyhelminthes, Cnidaria, Uniramia and Nemertea. The compositions of the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages differed significantly among habitat types and, to a similar extent, between seasons (Global R-statistic=0.408 and 0.409, respectively, p=0.1%). However, the spatial differences were considerable greater in winter than in summer (Global R-statistic=0.536 vs 0.280, p=0.1%), presumably due to the greater spatial variation in particular non-enduring in situ environmental characteristics, such as redox depth and salinity. While the number of species, overall density and taxonomic distinctness of benthic macroinvertebrates also differed significantly among habitats, those variables differed to a greater extent between seasons, being greater in winter than in summer. While the measures of taxonomic distinctness tended to be greater at habitat types located in the lower to middle reaches, i.e. habitat types 6, 7, 9, 10, 13 and 18, than the upper reaches i.e. habitat types 1 and 3, the number of species and overall density reflected this trend only during winter. During summer, the mean numbers of species at habitat types 1, 3, 6 and 10 (3.4-6.0) were significantly lower than those at habitat types 7, 13, and 18 (8.8-10.9), whereas the overall density of benthic macroinvertebrates was far greater at habitat type 7 (32260 individuals 0.1 m-2)than at any other habitat type in this season (3135-18552 individuals 0.1 m-2). Overall, the greatest differences in assemblage composition occurred between those at habitat types 1 and 18 (R-statistic=0.669, p=0.1%), which were located in the uppermost region of the estuary and the lower reaches of the basin, respectively, and differed to the greatest extent in their enduring environmental characteristics. The assemblage at habitat type 1, and also that at habitat type 3, located just downstream, were relatively distinct from those at all other habitat types, particularly during winter (R-statistics=0.666-0.993, p=0.1%). The fauna at the first of these habitat types was relatively depauperate, containing low numbers of species and densities, and was characterised by the polychaetes Leitoscoloplos normalis and Ceratonereis aequisetis and the bivalve Arthritica semen. The assemblage at habitat type 3 was also characterised by those three species and the amphipod Paracorophium minor and the polychaete Boccardiella limnicola. In contrast, the assemblage at habitat type 18 was characterised by a more diverse assemblage, i.e. the polychaetes Capitella capitata, C. aequisetis, L. normalis and Pseudopolydora kempi, the amphipods, Grandidierella propodentata and Corophium minor and the bivalve Sanguinolaria biradiata. The number of species was among the highest at this habitat type during both seasons, which was also reflected in the high taxonomic diversity, and the overall density was the highest in winter and second highest in summer. Despite the above faunal differences, those between assemblages at habitat types 7 and 9, which were both located in the basin of the Swan-Canning Estuary, were similar in magnitude to those that occurred between pairs of habitat types located in two different regions of the estuary. Although both habitat types 7 and 9 were characterised by a similar suite of species, i.e. Oligochaete spp., C. aequisetis, C. capitata, C. minor, G. propodentata, L. normalis, and S. biradiata, the substantial differences in assemblage composition between these habitat types in both summer and winter (R-statistics=0.570 and 0.725, respectively) was due to marked differences in the relative contributions of each of these species. Significant and strong correlations were shown to exist in both summer and winter between the pattern of differences in the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages among habitat types and that among the enduring environmental characteristics used to identify those habitat types (Rho=0.625 and 0.825, respectively, p=0.1%). Furthermore, these correlations were greater than those obtained between the benthic macroinvertebrate fauna and any combination of the non-enduring environmental characteristics (i.e. water quality and sediment parameters) recorded in situ at each habitat type (Rho=0.508 and 0.824, in summer and winter, respectively, p=o.1%). This demonstrates the greater capacity of surrogate enduring environmental characteristics to account for differences in the range of variables that may influence the distribution of benthic invertebrate fauna. Thus, the lists of characteristic benthic macroinvertebrate taxa produced for each of the eight habitat types studied in the Swan-Canning Estuary provide a reliable benchmark by which to gauge any future changes in those fauna. Moreover, these results indicate that the above habitat classification scheme can be used to reliably predict the types of benthic macroinvertebrate fauna that are likely to occur at any nearshore site of interest in this estuarine system. The final component of this study showed that the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages at four sites in the middle reaches of the Swan-Canning Estuary in 2003/4 differed significantly from those recorded at the same sites in 1986/7. Such differences were reflected in (1) changes in the relative densities of a suite of ten species that were responsible for distinguishing the faunas in these two periods, (2) the absence of 22 rare species in 2003/4 (i.e. 42% of the number of species recorded in 1986/7), (3) the presence of 17 new species in 2003/4, including an abundant polychaete that is likely to have been introduced and (4) a far greater extent of seasonal variation in the number of species and densities of benthic macroinvertebrates in 2003/4. Such changes are likely to be related to lower sediment oxygen levels in certain seasons in 2003/4, as well as an altered hydrological regime due to increased temperatures and decreased rainfall in that more recent period. The fact that these changes have occurred within the Swan-Canning Estuary highlights the need for effective management tools, such as the habitat classification scheme and associated faunal survey undertaken in this study. Such data will provide a sound basis by which to examine the ways in which fauna vary spatially within the system, and allow for the establishment of comprehensive benchmarks for detecting future changes.

Nutrients, periphyton and macroinvertebrates were sampled every two months for one year to assess the effects of treated sewage effluent on the Thredbo River and to compare changes in chemical concentrations and the invertebrate community since the introduction of nutrient removal on the Thredbo sewage treatment plant. Chemically, the impact of the effluent was minor and was reduced from levels measured before the addition of nutrient removal to the Thredbo sewage treatment plant. However, the reduction may be the result of higher flows during the study period. Biologically there was no indication of nutrient enrichment during June, August and October, with differences occurring between physically dissimilar sites irrespective of position relative to the sewage effluent inflow. Large increases in periphyton and macroinvertebrates occurred in December, February and April at both open sites and those downstream of the sewage outflow. Previous studies found increases in invertebrate abundance and richness immediately downstream of the sewage inflow, but the impact was greater and extended further downstream than found in this study. Strong correlations between total phosphorus and periphyton biomass and chlorophyll-a indicate phosphorus was a limiting nutrient. Higher periphyton biomass and chlorophyll-a at all sites during the warmer months (especially at open sites with an even cobble substratum), throughout the year, indicates light, temperature and substratum type were as important as phosphorus in controlling algal growth. Low algal biomass during the high flow month of October also indicates the importance of water velocity in controlling periphyton biomass. The structure of the macroinvertebrate community was noticeably different at sites downstream of the effluent discharge, with the exception of the most downstream site, when compared to the upstream sites. The occurrence of high macroinvertebrate numbers and species richness at sites with high periphyton growth and the strong positive correlation between invertebrate grazers and periphyton measurements shows a dependent relationship between invertebrates and periphyton growth. Therefore, the physical factors of light, temperature and substratum characteristics of particular sites in the Thredbo River, may be as important in controlling the benthic community as the levels of nutrient inputs from sewage.