Tesis por compendio / [ES] El envejecimiento poblacional es un fenómeno sin parangón en la historia de la humanidad. Así, se espera que las personas mayores de 65 años, o población sénior, doblen por primera a la población infantil en 2050. Cumplir años implica una serie de cambios a nivel fisiológico que comprenden, entre otros, una pérdida de funcionalidad de los órganos implicados en el proceso digestivo. En este sentido, el estudio de la digestibilidad de nutrientes, principalmente proteínas, y la bioaccesibilidad de determinadas vitaminas y minerales de interés para la salud de la población sénior, son de especial interés. Solo a partir de evidencias científicas será posible establecer recomendaciones nutricionales de ámbito clínico, y diseñar alimentos funcionales orientados a las necesidades específicas de este grupo poblacional. Entre los nutrientes mayoritariamente afectados por las alteraciones digestivas típicas de personas sénior, las proteínas suponen el reto más importante. Se sabe que las alteraciones orales, gástricas e intestinales afectan su digestión y absorción, contribuyendo al declive del estado general de salud, dando lugar a una pérdida de masa muscular, incremento y cambio de distribución de masa lipídica, huesos y articulaciones más débiles, algunas enfermedades metabólicas y cardiovasculares, entre otros cambios de tipo psicológico y social. El objetivo principal de esta tesis doctoral ha sido evaluar el impacto de las diferentes alteraciones que aparecen con la edad a nivel oral, gástrico e intestinal en la digestibilidad de proteínas, grasas y carbohidratos, así como en la bioaccesibilidad de micronutrientes de interés. Concretamente, se han analizado en alimentos ricos en proteína cuyo consumo está recomendado para mayores de 65 años, y que difieren entre sí en el origen de la proteína (pescados, lácteos, huevo, carne, legumbres y cereales). Para alcanzar este objetivo, se recurrió a modelos digestión in vitro en estático los cuales permiten simular, en condiciones controladas de laboratorio, el proceso digestivo de diferentes grupos de población y muestrear de forma no invasiva. Los resultados más relevantes de esta tesis doctoral se presentan en cinco capítulos, abordando en cada grupo alimenticio, la respuesta digestiva derivada tanto de las alteraciones fisiológicas dados en población sénior, como de ciertos factores inherentes al alimento. En cuanto a las alteraciones digestivas propias de la edad, es posible afirmar que las insuficiencias pancreática y biliar fueron las principales encargadas de reducir de forma significativa la extensión de la proteólisis en casi la totalidad de alimentos estudiados. Los resultados indican una mayor digestibilidad proteica en pescados magros, el huevo duro y escalfado, quesos, carnes de pollo y de vacuno, así como legumbres en general. La digestibilidad de las grasas, en cambio, no resultó negativamente afectada. Por otro lado, los quesos, sardina, así como algunos granos de legumbres y cereales contribuirían satisfactoriamente al aporte de calcio bioaccesible en mayor medida que otras matrices alimentarias. En cuanto a las vitaminas liposolubles, la ingesta de salmón y de quesos fueron una excelente fuente tanto de vitamina A como D3 en su forma bioabsorbible; mientras que la bioaccesibilidad de ambas vitaminas en huevo, dependió del método de cocinado. Además, la carne de cerdo brinda el mayor efecto antihipertensivo, mientras que la de pavo ejerce mayor efecto como antioxidante. Por último, la relación aminoácidos esenciales/ no esenciales aumentó en condiciones alteradas al final de la digestión, en comparación con las condiciones estándar de adulto sano. Por lo que, aun con una digestibilidad de proteínas afectada, los digeridos tendrán efecto contra la sarcopenia. / [CA] L'envelliment poblacional és un fenomen sense parangó en la història de la humanitat. Així, s'espera que les persones majors de 65 anys, o població sènior, dobleguen per primera a la població infantil en 2050. Complir anys implica una sèrie de canvis a nivell fisiològic que comprenen, entre altres, una pèrdua de funcionalitat dels òrgans implicats en el procés digestiu. En aquest sentit, l'estudi de la digestibilitat de nutrients, principalment proteïnes, i la bioaccesibilitat de determinades vitamines i minerals d'interès per a la salut de la població sènior, són d'especial interès. Només a partir d'evidències científiques serà útil establir recomanacions nutricionals d'àmbit clínic, i dissenyar aliments funcionals orientats a les necessitats específiques d'aquest grup poblacional. Entre els nutrients majoritàriament afectats per les alteracions digestives típiques de persones sènior, les proteïnes suposen el repte mes important. Se sap que les alteracions orals, gàstriques i intestinals afecten la seua digestió i absorció, contribuint al declivi de l'estat general de salut, donant lloc a una perduda de massa muscular, increment i canvi de distribució de massa lipídica, ossos i articulacions més febles, algunes malalties metabòliques i cardiovasculars, entre altres canvis de tipus psicològic i social. L'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi doctoral ha sigut avaluar l'impacte de les diferents alteracions que apareixen amb l'edat a nivell oral, gàstric i intestinal en la digestibilitat de proteïnes, greixos i carbohidrats, així com en la bioccesbilitat de micronutrients d'interès, en aliments rics en proteïna el consum de la qual està recomanat per a majors de 65 anys, i que difereixen entre si en l'origen d'aquest macronutrient (peixos, lactis, ou, carn, llegums i cereals). Per a aconseguir aquest objectiu, es va recórrer a models digestió in vitro en estàtic els quals permeten simular, en condicions controlades de laboratori, el procés digestiu de diferents grups de població i mostrejar de forma no invasiva. Els resultats més rellevants d'aquesta tesi doctoral es presenten en cinc capítols, abordant en cada grup alimentós, la resposta digestiva derivada tant de les alteracions fisiològiques donats en població sènior, com d'uns certs factors inherents a l'aliment. Quant a les alteracions digestives pròpies de l'edat, és possible afirmar que les insuficiències pancreàtica i biliar van ser les principals encarregades de reduir de manera significativa l'extensió de la proteòlisien quasi la totalitat d'aliments estudiats. Els resultats indiquen una major digestibilitat proteica en peixos magres, l'ou dur i escalfat, formatges, carns de pollastre i de boví, així com llegums en general. La digestibilitat dels greixos, en canvi, no va resultar negativament afectada. D'altra banda, els formatges, sardina, així com alguns grans de llegums i cereals contribuirien satisfactòriament a l'aportació de calci bioaccesible en major mesura que altres matrius alimentàries. Quant a les vitamines liposolubles, la ingesta de salmó i de formatges van ser una excel·lent font tant de vitamina A com D3 en la seua forma bioabsorbible; mentre que la bioaccesibilitat de totes dues vitamines en ou, va dependre del mètode de cuinat. A més, la carn de porc brinda el major efecte antihipertensiu, mentre que la de polit exerceix major efecte com a antioxidant. Finalment, la relació aminoàcids essencials/ no essencials va augmentar en condicions alterades al final de la digestió, en comparació amb les condicions estàndard d'adult sa. Pel que, fins i tot amb una digestibilitat de proteïnes afectada, els digerits tindran efecte contra la sarcopènia. / [EN] Population aging is a phenomenon unparalleled in human history. It is expected that people over 65 years, or the elderly, will double the child population for the first time by 2050. Turning 65 implies a series of physiological changes that include, among others, a loss of functionality of the organs involved in the digestive process. In this sense, the study of the digestibility of nutrients, mainly proteins, and the bioaccessibility of certain vitamins and minerals of interest for the health of the senior population, are of special interest. Only on the basis of scientific evidence will it be useful to establish nutritional recommendations at the clinical level, and to design functional foods oriented to the specific needs of this population group. Among the nutrients most affected by the common digestive disorders of the elderly, proteins represent the most important challenge. It is known that oral, gastric and intestinal disorders affect their digestion and absorption, contributing to the decline of general health status, resulting in a loss of muscle mass, increase and change of lipid mass distribution, weaker bones and joints, some metabolic and cardiovascular diseases, among other psychological and social changes. The main objective of this doctoral thesis has been to assess the impact of the different alterations appearing with age at oral, gastric and intestinal level on the digestibility of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, as well as on the bioaccessibility of micronutrients of interest, in protein-rich foods whose consumption is recommended for people over 65 years of age, and which differ from each other in the origin of this macronutrient (fish, dairy products, eggs, meat, legumes and cereals). To achieve this objective, in vitro static digestion models were used to simulate, under controlled laboratory conditions, the digestive process of different population groups and to sample in a non-invasive way. The most relevant results of this doctoral thesis are presented in five chapters, addressing in each food group, the digestive response derived both from physiological alterations in the senior population, as well as from certain factors inherent to the food. Regarding the digestive alterations associated with age, it is possible to affirm that pancreatic and biliary insufficiencies were the main responsible for the significant reduction in the proteolysis extent in almost all the studied foods. The results indicate a higher protein digestibility in lean fish, hard-boiled and poached eggs, cheeses, chicken and beef meats, as well as legumes in general. Fat digestibility, on the other hand, was not compromised. Moreover, cheeses, sardines, as well as some legume and cereal grains would contribute to a greater supply of bioaccessible calcium than other food matrices. For fat-soluble vitamins, the intake of salmon and cheeses resulted as excellent sources of both vitamin A and D3 in their bioabsorbable form, while the bioaccessibility of both vitamins in eggs depended on the cooking method. In addition, pork provided the greatest antihypertensive effect, while turkey meat exerted the greatest effect as antioxidant. Finally, the essential/non-essential amino acid ratio increased under altered conditions at the end of digestion, compared to standard healthy adult conditions. Thus, even with impaired protein digestibility, digests will have an effect against sarcopenia. / Hernández Olivas, E. (2021). Age-related digestive alterations and their impact on nutrients digestibility [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/175472 / TESIS / Compendio

Diferentes estratégias foram projetadas e desenvolvidas para sistemas de análises em fluxo envolvendo reações químicas relativamente lentas. O aprisionamento da zona da amostra na bobina de reação permite melhorias de sensibilidade em métodos espectrofotométricos em fluxo envolvendo reações catalíticas. Uma característica inerente a esta estratégia é que, de acordo com as baixas concentrações do analito de interesse esperadas nas amostras, pode-se explorar tanto a variação do tempo quanto da temperatura de aquecimento para o desenvolvimento reacional. Esta estratégia evita a geração de bolhas de ar quando temperaturas elevadas são empregadas. O aprisionamento da zona da amostra na bobina de reação em sistema de análises por injeção em fluxo foi aplicado à reação de oxidação do reagente Tiron por peróxido de hidrogênio catalisada por Co(II) para determinação espectrofotométrica de cobalto em gramíneas. O sistema apresentou boas figuras de mérito, tais como repetibilidade [d.p.r. = 0,8% para 0,6 ?g L-1 Co(II), (n = 5)], limite de detecção [0,046 ?g L-1 Co(II)], frequência de amostragem (19 h-1) e consumo de reagente (330 ?g de Tiron por determinação). Os dados de recuperação nas amostras de gramíneas digeridas variaram entre 97% e 113%. O aquecimento explorando o aprisionamento da zona da amostra na cubeta de detecção mostrou-se promissor para implementação de reações relativamente lentas sem a geração de bolhas de ar, e não houve liberação de bolhas mesmo sob a temperatura de 95ºC. Esta estratégia foi aplicada à determinação espectrofotométrica de vanádio em águas minerais envolvendo a oxidação de p-anisidina por bromato catalisada por V(V) e ativada por Tiron. Sob temperatura de 95ºC, boas figuras de mérito foram obtidas, tais como limite de detecção (0,1 ?g L-1), repetibilidade [d.p.r. = 2,1 % para 5,0 ?g L-1 (n = 10)], frequência analítica [25 h-1] e consumo de reagente (3,0 mg de p-anisidina por determinação). Adicionalmente, foi desenvolvido um procedimento analítico em fluxo para monitoramento dos resíduos de ametrina e atrazina potencialmente lixiviáveis em solos, envolvendo também um processo relativamente lento. Um sistema de análises por injeção sequencial foi utilizado para as etapas de dessorção dos herbicidas com solução 0,01 mol L-1 CaCl2 e concentração em fase sólida em linha, seguida da eluição dessas espécies para a separação em uma coluna monolítica C18 conectada a um cromatógrafo líquido por meio de uma válvula de seis vias. Os eluatos eram injetados no cromatógrafo por meio de uma alça de amostragem de 300 ?L conectada à válvula. Boas figuras de mérito foram obtidas, tais como fatores de enriquecimento de 10,2 e 18,8 e limites de detecção de 0,016 e 0,015 mg L-1 para ametrina e atrazina, respectivamente, limite de quantificação de 0,05 mg L-1 para ambos os herbicidas e repetibilidade estimada como 6,3% e 5,1% para 0,05 mg L-1 (n = 10) para ametrina e atrazina, respecivamente. Os dados de adição e recuperação dos herbicidas nos extratos de solos em condições de equilíbrio se situaram na faixa de 85 a 99% / Different approaches to analytical flow systems involving relatively slow chemical reactions were developed. Zone trapping inside the reaction coil enables sensitivity improvements in flow-based spectrophotometric procedures relying on catalytic reactions. The reaction time and/or temperature can be increased for the determination of analytes present in the samples at low concentrations. Exploitation of the strategy avoids the liberation of air bubbles in the analytical path when high temperatures are involved. A flow injection system with zone trapping in the main reactor was developed for the spectrophotometric determination of cobalt in grass samples exploiting the oxidation of Tiron by bromate catalised by Co(II). Good figures of merit such as repeatability [r.s.d. = 0.8% for 0.6 ?g L-1 Co(II), (n = 5)], detection limit [0.046 ?g L-1 Co(II)], sampling frequency [19 h-1] and reagent consumption (330 ?g of Tiron for determination) were attained. Recovery data in grass sample digests varied within 97% e 113%. Zone trapping inside the flow-through cuvette for exploiting high temperatures was also promising for relatively slow reactions, as no liberation of air bubbles was noted even for temperatures as high as 95oC. The approach was applied to the spectrophotometric determination of vanadium in mineral water samples relying on the oxidation of p-anisidine by bromate catalised by V(V) at 95ºC. Good analytical figures of merit such as repeatability [r.s.d. = 2.1% for 5.0 µg L-1 V(V), n = 10], detection limit [0.1 µg L-1 V(V), sample frequency (25 h-1) and reagent consumption (3.0 mg of p-anisidine per determination) were attained. Additionally, an analytical procedure to monitor the potentially leachable ametryn and atrazine residues in soil samples was proposed. As leaching is relatively slow, a sequential injection system was used to perform the herbicide extractions with 0.01 mol L-1 CaCl2 and in-line solid phase extraction followed by elution towards a C18 monolithic column connected to a liquid chomatograph. To this end, the outlet of the column was connected to a 300-µL six-port valve. Regarding analytical performance, enrichment factors and detection limits were 10.2 and 18.8 and 0.016 e 0.015 mg L-1 for ametryn and atrazine, respectively, quantification limits were 0.05 mg L-1 for both herbicides and good repeatability (r.s.d. = 6.3 and 5.1 % for 0.05 mg L-1 of ametryn and atrazine, n = 10) were attained. Recovery data in the soil extracts under equilibrium conditions were within 85 and 99%

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of vegetable by-products, including fruit by-products (passion fruit, orange, acerola, and mango) and soy by-product (okara), on the folate production by starter and probiotic strains for the bio-enrichment of fermented soy products. In the first part of this study, the impact of amaranth flour on folate production by these microorganisms was also evaluated. The effect of vegetable by-products and amaranth flour on the ability of three starters - Streptococcus thermophilus (ST-M6, TH-4, and TA-40) and ten probiotic strains (Lactobacillus (Lb.) acidophilus LA-5, Lb. fermentum PCC, Lb. reuteri RC-14, Lb. paracasei subsp. paracasei Lb. casei 431, Lb. paracasei subsp. paracasei F19, Lb. rhamnosus GR-1, and Lb. rhamnosus LGG, Bifidobacterium (B.) animalis subsp. lactis BB-12, B. longum subsp. longum BB-46, and B. longum subsp. infantis BB-02) to produce folate was evaluated, using a modified MRS broth. Most of the microorganisms were able to produce folate. However, folate production was strain-dependent and also dependent on the environmental conditions and on the vegetable substrate used. Passion fruit by-product presented the lowest folate concentration and was selected for the following experiments. Thus, the impact of the supplementation of soymilk with passion fruit by-product and/or commercial prebiotic fructooligosaccharides FOS P95 on the folate production by three St. thermophilus strains, as well as four probiotic Lactobacillus strains (LA-5, LGG, PCC, and RC-14) were evaluated. St. thermophilus ST-M6 and TH-4 produced the highest amounts of folate in all fermented soymilks. The concentration of the vitamin was also high when these strains grew in co-culture with LA-5 and LGG. Soymilk supplemented with both passion fruit by-product and FOS together presented the highest concentration of folate when fermented by the co-culture TH-4+LGG. This co-culture was selected to produce four fermented soy products (FSP). All FSP were bio-enriched with folate produced by the co-culture and the probiotic strain LGG remained always above 8 log CFU/mL until the end of the storage period (28 days at 4ºC). In contrast, the concentration of the vitamin was stable until day 14 then a slight decrease was observed at the end of the storage period. The FSP supplemented with both passion fruit by-product and FOS together may contribute with around 14% of the recommended daily intake for folate if consumed until day 14 of storage. During the in vitro simulated gastrointestinal conditions, the folate content of the digested FSP increased from 1.3 to 3.6-fold, especially at the small and large intestinal in vitro phases and the strain LGG was recovered. In contrast, St. thermophilus TH-4 was not recovered during the assay. Finally, the prebiotic potential of the bioactive compounds present in the fruit by-products was characterized. Fruit by-product water extracts (FWE) containing soluble fibres from fruit by-products were obtained through a hot-water extraction and were associated to phenolic compounds and showed antioxidant activity. The FWE (especially, orange and mango water extracts) presented an anti-inflammatory potential by decreasing the nitric oxide concentration produced in vitro by macrophages stimulated with lipopolisaccharides (LPS) from Salmonella Thyphymurium. The FWE (especially from mango) were able to stimulate the growth of the strains TH-4 and LGG, as well the folate production by these microorganisms when tested individually and in co-culture. The FWE also increased the adhesion of TH-4 and LGG to Caco-2 cells in an in vitro model. These results suggest a prebiotic potential of the fruit by-products evaluated and their potential towards increased folate production by the selected microorganisms. Therefore, the bio-enrichment of fermented soy products with folate produced by beneficial microorganisms is an alternative for the development of functional foods with high folate content. Additionally, fermentable bioactive compounds with functional and/or biological activity, such as soluble fibres associated to phenolic compounds with antioxidant activity, present in the fruit by-products, may act as potential prebiotic ingredients. These bioactive molecules may represent a potential natural alternative to synthetic drugs for the treatment of inflammatory processes. / O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar o efeito de subprodutos vegetais, incluindo subprodutos do processamento de fruta (maracujá, laranja, acerola e manga) e de soja (okara) na produção de folatos de novo por microrganismos strater e probióticos para bioenriquecer um produto de soja fermentado. Na primeira etapa deste trabalho, o impacto da farinha de amaranto na produção de folatos pelos microrganismos também foi avaliado. Neste sentido, primeiramente, verificou-se o efeito desses subprodutos vegetais e da farinha de amaranto na capacidade de três cepas starter - Streptococcus thermophilus (ST-M6, TH-4 e TA-40) e 10 cepas probióticas (Lactobacillus (Lb.) acidophilus LA-5, Lb. fermentum PCC, Lb. reuteri RC-14, Lb. paracasei subsp. paracasei Lb. casei 431, Lb. paracasei subsp. paracasei F19, Lb. rhamnosus GR-1, and Lb. rhamnosus LGG, Bifidobacterium (B.) animalis subsp. lactis BB-12, B. longum subsp. longum BB-46, e B. longum subsp. infantis BB-02) em produzir folato utilizando um caldo MRS modificado. A maior parte dos microrganismos testados foi capaz de produzir folato. Entretanto, a produção foi considerada cepa-dependente e, também, dependente das condições ambientais e do tipo de subproduto vegetal empregado. O subproduto de maracujá apresentou a menor concentração de folato e, por isso, foi selecionado para os testes seguintes. Neste sentido, o impacto da suplementação do leite de soja com subproduto de maracujá e/ou com o prebiótico comercial fruto-oligosacarídeo FOS P95 na produção de folato pelas três cepas de St. thermophilus, bem como quarto cepas probióticas do gênero Lactobacillus (LA-5, LGG, PCC e RC-14), também foi avaliado. Em cultura pura, as cepas de St. thermophilus ST-M6 e TH-4 produziram grande quantidade de folato nas formulações de extrato de soja fermentados. A concentração da vitamina foi maior quando tais cepas se desenvolveram em co-cultura com LA-5 e LGG. Observou-se que o extrato de soja suplementado concomitantemente com subproduto de maracujá e FOS apresentou a maior quantidade de folato quando fermentado pela co-cultura TH-4+LGG. Esta co-cultura, portanto, foi selecionada para desenvolver os produtos fermentados de soja (PFS). Todas as formulações foram bioenriquecidas e a cepa LGG manteve-se viável por todo o período de armazenamento (28 dias a 4ºC). Entretanto, a concentração da vitamina manteve-se estável apenas até o dia 14, observando-se uma diminuição da quantidade de folato ao final do período de armazenamento. Constatou-se que o produto fermentado de soja suplementado concomitantemente com subproduto de maracujá e FOS pode contribuir com cerca de 14% da ingestão diária recomendada para folato se consumido até o dia 14 do armazenamento. Além disso, durante a simulação gastrointestinal in vitro, observou-se que a digestão aumentou de 1,3 a 3,6 vezes a concentração da vitamina incrementando, consideravelmente, a bioacessibilidade do folato, principalmente nas porções simuladas do intestino delgado e grosso do intestino e a cepa LGG foi recuperada. Entretanto, a cepa St. thermophilus TH-4 não foi recuperada durante o ensaio. Por fim, o potencial prebiótico de componentes bioativos presentes nos subprodutos de fruta foi caracterizado. Uma extração Hot Water foi conduzida, a fim de obter extratos aquosos de subprodutos de fruta ricos em fibras solúveis associadas a compostos fenólicos com atividade antioxidante. Observou-se, ainda, que tais extratos aquosos de subprodutos de fruta (laranja e manga) apresentaram potencial anti-inflamatório constatado pela diminuição da concentração de óxido nítrico produzido por macrófagos estimulados com lipopolissacarideo (LPS) de Salmonella Typhymurium in vitro. Além disso, os extratos aquosos de subprodutos de fruta (principalmente o extrato aquoso de subproduto de manga) foram capazes de estimular a multiplicação das cepas TH-4 e LGG, bem como a produção de folatos por estes microrganismos quando avaliados individualmente e em co-cultura. Adicionalmente, esses extratos aquosos de subprodutos de fruta aumentaram a adesao do TH-4 e do LGG a células Caco-2 em modelo in vitro. Neste sentido, os resultados sugerem um potencial prebiótico dos subprodutos de fruta testados, de modo a estimular, não somente o desenvolvimento dos microrganismos avaliados mas, principalmente, o potencial destes em produzir folatos na presença dos substratos vegetais testados. O bioenriquecimento dos produtos fermentados de soja com folatos produzidos por microrganismos benéficos emerge como alternativa de alimento potencialmente funcional com alto teor de folato. Adicionalmente, compostos bioativos fermentescíveis e com atividade biológica como, por exemplo, as fibras solúveis associadas a compostos fenólicos com atividade antioxidante, presentes nos subprodutos de fruta testados podem constituir potenciais ingredientes prebióticos, além de representarem uma possível alternativa natural para o tratamento de processos inflamatórios.

Recognition that the bioavailability of soil As (As) is influenced by its soil dynamics has initiated research into development of more accurate, site-specific soil guideline values, departing from the assumption that the total soil As content is bioavailable. With the aim of deriving predictive models, the relationship between soil properties and As bioavailability (bioaccessibility and phytotoxicity) was examined on a set of naturally contaminated sheep dip soils (n = 30). Sampled soils were extensively characterised, bioaccessibility was estimated through an in vitro procedure, and soil As toxicity and availability to plants were evaluated using an early growth wheat bioassay. The in vitro bioaccessibility was consistently less than the total soil As content. Arsenic bioaccessibility was negatively correlated to soil iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and aluminium (Al) contents, and it was positively related to the soil As loading. The in vitro extractable soil As concentrations were successfully modelled using linear combinations of soil As content, soil Fe and Mn determinations and soil pH. Differences in As phytotoxicity, expressed in terms of effective toxic concentration (EC50), between soils were directly related to soil Fe, Mn and Al contents. Available soil phosphorous (P) exerted an ameliorating effect on As toxicity, with the available soil As/P ratio representing the single best predictor of plant growth suppression. Plant P nutrition appeared to influence the relative selectivity for As and P by wheat, with greater selectivity for P demonstrated under P deficient conditions. Plant As uptake, its distribution, and also the plant nutrient status were all adversely affected by increasing soil As exposure. Co-contamination by Zn corresponded to a substantial elevation in proportion of the plant As allocated in shoots. Plant As levels exhibited a saturation-dependent relationship with increasing soil As. The best linear predictors of plant As levels in the non-toxic range were RHIZO-extractable and effective soil As concentrations, the latter based on the diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) technique. Despite the complexity of soil As dynamics, large proportions in the variances exhibited by the two measures of bioavailability were explained using a small set of readily-available soil properties.

Pavement markings are vital for safely navigating roadways. The nighttime visibility of pavement markings is enhanced by addition of retroreflective glass beads, most of which are made from recycled glass. Concern has been raised over the presence of heavy metals in glass beads used in pavement markings and their effect on human and environmental health. Based upon the potential risk associated with the presence of arsenic and lead in the glass beads, two Bills are currently being considered before the 112th Congress of the United States of America seeking to set a maximum permissible limit for the amount of arsenic and lead in glass beads used within pavement marking systems on domestic roadways. This study was designed to support legislative decision making by providing data necessary for risk assessment. The experiments carried out provide: an analysis of glass bead metal content and extractability; an evaluation of the relationship between arsenic content of the glass beads and their retroreflective performance; an evaluation of analytical methods used to measure the total bead metal content; and an analysis of samples of glass bead and soil mixture from a glass bead storage site used to determine site-specific metal concentrations in the soil media. Mean arsenic content, measured using the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory's KOH fusion digestion, in all the glass beads examined ranged from 11 ppm to 82 ppm, while mean lead content, measured using KOH fusion digestion, ranged from below quantification limit to 199 ppm. Total metal content measurements indicated a high amount of variability in the glass bead samples; most likely associated with the use of recycled glass feed during manufacturing. The relationship between the retroreflective performance and the arsenic content of the glass beads was analyzed and a weak but positive correlation was observed between the two factors. However, a more detailed study is required to evaluate the relationship between arsenic content and retroreflectivity. Different methods to evaluate the total metal content in glass beads were compared; it is recommended that any analytical method may be used, as long as the standard reference material is reproduced within the range of concentration expected in the glass beads. In the analysis of the field site samples of soil containing glass beads obtained from a glass bead storage and transfer facility, the mass content of beads in the soil varied from a mean of 19% to 78% depending on the location within the facility. However, a detailed analysis with larger number of samples must be performed to evaluate the effect of glass beads on the total arsenic content of the soil.

Diferentes estratégias foram projetadas e desenvolvidas para sistemas de análises em fluxo envolvendo reações químicas relativamente lentas. O aprisionamento da zona da amostra na bobina de reação permite melhorias de sensibilidade em métodos espectrofotométricos em fluxo envolvendo reações catalíticas. Uma característica inerente a esta estratégia é que, de acordo com as baixas concentrações do analito de interesse esperadas nas amostras, pode-se explorar tanto a variação do tempo quanto da temperatura de aquecimento para o desenvolvimento reacional. Esta estratégia evita a geração de bolhas de ar quando temperaturas elevadas são empregadas. O aprisionamento da zona da amostra na bobina de reação em sistema de análises por injeção em fluxo foi aplicado à reação de oxidação do reagente Tiron por peróxido de hidrogênio catalisada por Co(II) para determinação espectrofotométrica de cobalto em gramíneas. O sistema apresentou boas figuras de mérito, tais como repetibilidade [d.p.r. = 0,8% para 0,6 ?g L-1 Co(II), (n = 5)], limite de detecção [0,046 ?g L-1 Co(II)], frequência de amostragem (19 h-1) e consumo de reagente (330 ?g de Tiron por determinação). Os dados de recuperação nas amostras de gramíneas digeridas variaram entre 97% e 113%. O aquecimento explorando o aprisionamento da zona da amostra na cubeta de detecção mostrou-se promissor para implementação de reações relativamente lentas sem a geração de bolhas de ar, e não houve liberação de bolhas mesmo sob a temperatura de 95ºC. Esta estratégia foi aplicada à determinação espectrofotométrica de vanádio em águas minerais envolvendo a oxidação de p-anisidina por bromato catalisada por V(V) e ativada por Tiron. Sob temperatura de 95ºC, boas figuras de mérito foram obtidas, tais como limite de detecção (0,1 ?g L-1), repetibilidade [d.p.r. = 2,1 % para 5,0 ?g L-1 (n = 10)], frequência analítica [25 h-1] e consumo de reagente (3,0 mg de p-anisidina por determinação). Adicionalmente, foi desenvolvido um procedimento analítico em fluxo para monitoramento dos resíduos de ametrina e atrazina potencialmente lixiviáveis em solos, envolvendo também um processo relativamente lento. Um sistema de análises por injeção sequencial foi utilizado para as etapas de dessorção dos herbicidas com solução 0,01 mol L-1 CaCl2 e concentração em fase sólida em linha, seguida da eluição dessas espécies para a separação em uma coluna monolítica C18 conectada a um cromatógrafo líquido por meio de uma válvula de seis vias. Os eluatos eram injetados no cromatógrafo por meio de uma alça de amostragem de 300 ?L conectada à válvula. Boas figuras de mérito foram obtidas, tais como fatores de enriquecimento de 10,2 e 18,8 e limites de detecção de 0,016 e 0,015 mg L-1 para ametrina e atrazina, respectivamente, limite de quantificação de 0,05 mg L-1 para ambos os herbicidas e repetibilidade estimada como 6,3% e 5,1% para 0,05 mg L-1 (n = 10) para ametrina e atrazina, respecivamente. Os dados de adição e recuperação dos herbicidas nos extratos de solos em condições de equilíbrio se situaram na faixa de 85 a 99% / Different approaches to analytical flow systems involving relatively slow chemical reactions were developed. Zone trapping inside the reaction coil enables sensitivity improvements in flow-based spectrophotometric procedures relying on catalytic reactions. The reaction time and/or temperature can be increased for the determination of analytes present in the samples at low concentrations. Exploitation of the strategy avoids the liberation of air bubbles in the analytical path when high temperatures are involved. A flow injection system with zone trapping in the main reactor was developed for the spectrophotometric determination of cobalt in grass samples exploiting the oxidation of Tiron by bromate catalised by Co(II). Good figures of merit such as repeatability [r.s.d. = 0.8% for 0.6 ?g L-1 Co(II), (n = 5)], detection limit [0.046 ?g L-1 Co(II)], sampling frequency [19 h-1] and reagent consumption (330 ?g of Tiron for determination) were attained. Recovery data in grass sample digests varied within 97% e 113%. Zone trapping inside the flow-through cuvette for exploiting high temperatures was also promising for relatively slow reactions, as no liberation of air bubbles was noted even for temperatures as high as 95oC. The approach was applied to the spectrophotometric determination of vanadium in mineral water samples relying on the oxidation of p-anisidine by bromate catalised by V(V) at 95ºC. Good analytical figures of merit such as repeatability [r.s.d. = 2.1% for 5.0 µg L-1 V(V), n = 10], detection limit [0.1 µg L-1 V(V), sample frequency (25 h-1) and reagent consumption (3.0 mg of p-anisidine per determination) were attained. Additionally, an analytical procedure to monitor the potentially leachable ametryn and atrazine residues in soil samples was proposed. As leaching is relatively slow, a sequential injection system was used to perform the herbicide extractions with 0.01 mol L-1 CaCl2 and in-line solid phase extraction followed by elution towards a C18 monolithic column connected to a liquid chomatograph. To this end, the outlet of the column was connected to a 300-µL six-port valve. Regarding analytical performance, enrichment factors and detection limits were 10.2 and 18.8 and 0.016 e 0.015 mg L-1 for ametryn and atrazine, respectively, quantification limits were 0.05 mg L-1 for both herbicides and good repeatability (r.s.d. = 6.3 and 5.1 % for 0.05 mg L-1 of ametryn and atrazine, n = 10) were attained. Recovery data in the soil extracts under equilibrium conditions were within 85 and 99%

Depuis la révolution industrielle en Europe (XIXe siècle), les nombreuses activités anthropiques ont provoqué des changements environnementaux globaux considérables. La composition de l'atmosphère terrestre en particulier, a été fortement modifiée par l'émission de polluants gazeux et particulaires. Actuellement, l'industrie métallurgique de seconde fusion contribue de façon significative aux émissions atmosphériques de métaux. C'est pourquoi ce travail de thèse s'est focalisé sur l'étude des transferts et impacts sur les sols, les végétaux et l'homme, des particules émises par le procédé de recyclage du plomb en relation avec leurs propriétés physico-chimiques. Trois sources principales d'émissions de particules ont été identifiées dans le procédé du recyclage du plomb et caractérisées en vue d'étudier les impacts potentiels sur les cibles végétales et humaines. Les particules échantillonnées (postes de travail et émissions canalisées) et ségréguées en fonction de leur taille (PMtot, PM10 et PM2,5) sont principalement composées de métaux (jusqu'à 50% en masse de la composition totale en métaux de transition, alcalins et alcalino-terreux), avec une majeur partie de plomb (25-45 %). Les spéciations majoritaires du plomb sont la galène (PbS), le sulfate du plomb (PbSO4) ou dérivés (xPbO.PbSO4 x=1,2 ou 3). L'étude du transfert des particules dans le sytème sol-plante a montré que, lorsque la taille des particules de process présentes dans le sol diminue (de 10µm à 2.5µm), le tranfert du plomb vers les parties aériennes des salades augmente de 20%. Le transfert foliaire de plomb issu des particules de process a été mis en évidence et des mécanismes d'absorption.ont été proposés. Enfin, l'étude exploratoire des particules riches en plomb sur la santé humaine a permis de montrer que la diminition de la taille des particules ingérées augmentait la bioaccessibilité gastrique du plomb. Dans le cas de l'inhalation, il a été démontré que les particules n'induisaient pas de cytotoxicité jusqu'à 50µg/cm2, mais provoquaient une réponse inflammatoire dose-dépendante des cellules épithéliales pulmonaires. / Since the Industrial Revolution in Europe (XIXe century), human activities have caused significant global environmental changes. The composition of the atmosphere in particular, has been extensively modified by the emission of gaseous and particulate pollutants. Currently, the secondary (or recycling) metallurgical industry contributes significantly to air emissions of metals. Therefore, this thesis focused on the study of transfers and impacts on soils, plants and humans, of particles from the recycling process of lead in relation to their physicochemical properties. Three main sources of particulate emissions have been identified in the process of recycling lead and characterized, to study the potential impacts on plant and human targets. The particles sampled (workstations and channelled emissions), and segregated according to their size (PMtot, PM10 and PM2, 5), are mainly composed of metals (up to 50% by weight of the total composition in transition metals alkaline and alkaline), with a major part of lead (25-45%). The major speciations of lead are galena (PbS), lead sulfate (PbSO4) or derivatives (xPbO.PbSO4 x = 1,2 or 3). The study of transfer of particles in the soil-plant system has shown that when the particle size of processes in the soil decreases (from 2.5µm to 10µm), the transfer of lead into the aerial parts of lettuce growing at 20 %. The uptake of lead from particles process by leaves has been demonstrated and mechanisms of absorption have been proposed. Finally, exploratory study of lead-rich particles on human health has shown that diminution of the size of particles ingested increased gastric bioaccessibility of lead. In the case of inhalation, it was shown that the particles did not induce cytotoxicity up 50µg/cm2, but caused a dose-dependent inflammatory response of lung epithelial cells

Dans un contexte où les préoccupations environnement-santé sont croissantes à l’échelle globale. Améliorer la compréhension des mécanismes de biodisponibilité et d’(éco)toxicité des polluants métalliques persistants est un enjeu prioritaire, notamment en raison de leur omniprésence observée dans les écosystèmes en relation avec leur compartimentation et spéciation . Le ver de terre est utilisé pour évaluer la qualité des sols ; de plus cet organisme du sol de par ses activités de bioturbation a une influence sur les cycles biogéochimiques. Des tests d’écotoxicité en conditions contrôlées sur vers de terre ont donc été réalisés avec différents sols et espèces de vers. Puis une étude d’impact sur les communautés de vers a été effectuée sur un site pollué présentant un gradient de concentration. L’influence de la bioturbation du ver sur la phytodisponibilité des polluants a été étudiée grâce à des expériences en mésocosmes. Finalement, des mesures de bioaccessibilité des polluants ont été réalisées in vitro sur des sols et végétaux pollués dans différents contextes : friches industrielles, jardins potagers, terrain de sport. L’objectif étant d’étudier le lien entre biodisponibilité pour l’homme, caractéristiques des sols et contexte de pollution. Deux approches complémentaires ont été développées : recherche scientifique liés aux mécanismes et développement d’outils, de procédures pratiques utilisables par les gestionnaires et évaluateurs de risques. L’écotoxicité des métaux et métalloïdes (notés ETM) sur les vers de terre n’est pas simplement régie par leurs concentrations totales, mais dépend fortement des caractéristiques physico-chimiques des sols. Par ailleurs, l’analyse des communautés de ver de terre présentes sur un site contaminé permet d’évaluer la qualité des sols puisqu’on constate un impact sur les l’abondance, la diversité et le taux de juvénile des vers. De plus, la bioturbation du ver de terre augmente significativement la biodisponibilité des ETM pour les plantes potagères telles que la laitue. Finalement, la bioaccessibilité humaine des ETM est régi par de nombreux facteurs liés en particulier au contexte de pollution. Cette fraction bioaccessible des ETM est directement responsable de leur cytotoxicité sur les cellules intestinales. Ces différents résultats ont été complétés par des études mécanistiques (IR, EXAFS, XANES, µ-XRF). / In a context where environmental health concerns are globally increasing. Improve understanding of the mechanisms and bioavailability (eco) toxicity of persistent metals pollutants is a priority, especially because of their observed omnipresence in ecosystems in relation to their compartmentation and speciation. The earthworm is used to assess soil quality; moreover this soil organism through its bioturbation activities affects biogeochemical cycles. Ecotoxicity tests under controlled circumstances on earthworms have been conducted with different soils and worms’ species. Then an impact study on earthworms’ communities was conducted on a polluted site showing a concentration gradient. The influence of earthworms’ bioturbation on phytoavailability of pollutants was studied through experiments in mesocosms and Rhizotest. Finally, in vitro measures of pollutants bioavailability were performed on polluted soils and plants in different contexts: brownfields, gardens, sports field. The objective is to study the link between bioavailability for humans, soil characteristics, context of pollution and toxicity. Two complementary approaches have been developed: scientific research related to the mechanisms and development of tools, practical procedures which could be used by managers and risk assessors. Ecotoxicity of metals and metalloid (denoted ETM) on earthworms is not simply governed by their total concentrations, but strongly depends on the physico-chemical characteristics of soils. Furthermore, analysis of earthworm communities from a contaminated site can evaluate the quality of soil since seen an impact on the abundance, diversity and rate of juvenile worms. In addition, earthworms’ bioturbation significantly increases the bioavailability of ETM for vegetable plants such as lettuce. Finally, the human bioaccessibility of ETM is governed by many factors, in particular the context of pollution. The bioaccessible fraction of ETM is directly responsible for their cytotoxicity on intestinal cells. These results were complemented by mechanistic studies (IR, EXAFS, XANES, μ-XRF).

Tesis por compendio / [ES] El proceso de emulsificación de aceites ricos en compuestos bioactivos permite su mejor aplicación y conservación durante el tiempo de almacenamiento. Entre los diversos mecanismos de emulsificación, se destaca el método de Pickering ya que utiliza nanopartículas sólidas naturales en sustitución de los tensioactivos artificiales. Debido a sus propiedades antioxidantes, no toxicidad y disponibilidad, en este trabajo se estudiaron distintas modificaciones del quitosano para su potencial aplicación como partícula de Pickering. Las modificaciones estudiadas fueron la autoagregación, también denominada desprotonación, y el entrecruzamiento con tripolifosfato de sodio. Se evaluó el comportamiento de estas partículas emulsionando aceite de café tostado, un subproducto de la industria de café con un alto contenido de compuestos bioactivos y compuestos volátiles de interés. Posteriormente, se analizaron las propiedades físico-químicas y la estabilidad de las microcápsulas producidas tras el secado de las emulsiones mediante técnicas de secado por atomización y liofilización. Todas las emulsiones se caracterizaron por tener un comportamiento reológico pseudoplástico, sufriendo desintegración a lo largo del proceso de digestión. Las emulsiones formuladas con nanopartículas de quitosano desprotonadas y menor concentración de aceite mostraron una mejor estabilización y, en consecuencia, una mayor bioaccesibilidad de los compuestos fenólicos totales. Las diferentes nanopartículas de quitosano se caracterizaron estudiando su carga superficial, distribución del tamaño de partícula, microestructura y afinidad agua/aceite. A medida que se aumentó la concentración de estas partículas, se afectó positivamente la viscosidad de las emulsiones debido a la formación de una red tridimensional en la fase continua. Las nanopartículas obtenidas al entrecruzar quitosano con tripolifosfato de sodio fueron más pequeñas, dando como resultado emulsiones con gotas más pequeñas. Las emulsiones de Pickering que contenían un 10% de aceite de café tostado se secaron por atomización y se liofilizaron utilizando las diferentes nanopartículas de quitosano estudiadas y maltodextrina como agentes portadores. Las microcápsulas obtenidas tuvieron la humedad, actividad del agua y solubilidad adecuada para su manipulación y almacenamiento. La presencia de nanopartículas de quitosano permitió una mayor retención de aceite en las microcápsulas y mayor eficiencia de encapsulación. Los compuestos bioactivos y las propiedades antioxidantes se conservaron mejor durante la liofilización. Por otro lado, las microcápsulas obtenidas por atomización presentaron mayor protección de estos compuestos durante la digestión. Las microcápsulas formuladas con nanopartículas desprotonadas fueron sometidas a almacenamiento durante 30 días a 25 ºC. Durante el almacenamiento, se evaluó la protección contra la oxidación de lípidos y la liberación de volátiles. Las isotermas de sorción de agua de estas muestras se determinaron también previamente en las condiciones de almacenamiento. Ambas muestras presentaron isotermas del tipo II, lo que permitió un buen ajuste del modelo de GAB a los datos experimentales. La determinación del índice de peróxido y del contenido de dienos conjugados dio lugar a valores adecuados durante el almacenamiento, aunque las muestras liofilizadas presentaron una ligera tendencia a la oxidación debido a la mayor cantidad de aceite superficial. Aunque hubo ligeras diferencias entre las muestras secas, todas mostraron menos pérdida de aromas totales (~28%) en comparación con el aceite no encapsulado (~51%) al final del almacenamiento. Así, se concluyó que las nanopartículas de quitosano estudiadas fueron eficientes para encapsular el aceite de café tostado y preservar sus características frente a la acción de agentes externos. / [CA] El procés d'emulsificació d'olis rics en compostos bioactius permet la seua millor aplicació i conservació durant el temps d'emmagatzematge. Entre els diversos mecanismes d'emulsificació, destaca el mètode de Pickering, ja que utilitza nanopartícules sòlides naturals en substitució als tensioactius artificials. A causa de la seua propietat antioxidant, de la no toxicitat i de la disponibilitat, aquest treball va buscar analitzar el quitosà i les seues modificacions com potencials partícules de Pickering. Les modificacions estudiades van ser la autoagregació, també anomenada desprotonació, i l'entrecreuament amb tripolifosfat de sodi. Es va avaluar el comportament d'aquestes partícules emulsionant oli de cafè torrat, un subproducte de la indústria del cafè amb un alt contingut de compostos bioactius i volàtils d'interès. Posteriorment, es van analitzar les propietats fisicoquímiques i l'estabilitat de les microcàpsules produïdes després de l'assecat de les emulsions mitjançant tècniques d'assecatge per atomització i liofilització. Totes les emulsions tenien un comportament reològic pseudoplàstic, sofrint desintegració al llarg del procés de digestió. Les emulsions formulades amb nanopartícules de quitosà desprotonades i menor concentració d'oli van mostrar una millor estabilització i, en conseqüència, una major bioaccesibilitat als compostos fenòlics totals. Les diferents nanopartícules de quitosà es van caracteritzar estudiant la seua càrrega superficial, distribució del tamany de partícula, microestructura i afinitat aigua/oli. A mesura que es va augmentar la concentració d'aquestes partícules, es va afectar positivament la viscositat de les emulsions a causa de la formació d'una xarxa tridimensional en la fase contínua. Les nanopartícules obtingudes a l'entrecreuar quitosà amb tripolifosfat de sodi van ser més menudes, donant com a resultat emulsions amb gotes més menudes també. Les emulsions de Pickering que contenien un 10% d'oli de cafè torrat es van assecar per atomització i es liofilitzaren utilitzant les diferents nanopartícules de quitosà estudiades i maltodextrina com a agents portadors. Les microcàpsules obtingudes van obtenir una humitat, activitat de l'aigua i solubilitat adequada per a la seua manipulació i emmagatzematge. La presència de nanopartícules de quitosà va permetre major retenció d'oli en les microcàpsules i major eficiència d'encapsulació. Els compostos bioactius i les propietats antioxidants es van conservar millor durant la liofilització. D'altra banda, les microcàpsules obtingudes per atomització presentaren major protecció d'aquests compostos durant la digestió. Les microcàpsules formulades amb nanopartícules desprotonades també van ser sotmeses a la prova d'emmagatzematge durant 30 dies a 25°C. Durant l'emmagatzematge, es va avaluar la seua protecció contra l'oxidació de lípids i l'alliberament de volàtils. Per això, les isotermes de sorció d'aigua d'aquestes mostres es van determinar prèviament en les condicions d'emmagatzematge. Les dues mostres van presentar isotermes de tipus II, el que va permetre un bon ajust del model de GAB a les dades experimentals. L'índex de peròxids i el contingut de diens conjugats van resultar en valors adequats durant l'emmagatzematge, encara que les mostres liofilitzades van presentar una lleugera tendència a l'oxidació a causa de la major quantitat d'oli superficial. Encara que va haver lleugeres diferències entre les mostres seques, totes van mostrar menys pèrdua d'aromes totals (~28%) en comparació amb l'oli no encapsulat (~51%) a la fi de l'emmagatzematge. Així, es va concloure que les nanopartícules de quitosà estudiades van ser eficients per encapsular l'oli de cafè torrat i preservar les seues característiques enfront de l'acció d'agents externs. / [EN] The emulsification process of bioactive-rich oils makes possible their better application and preservation over the storage time. Among the many emulsification mechanisms, the Pickering method has been highlighted as it uses natural solid nanoparticles in replacement of artificial surfactants. Due to the antioxidant properties, non-toxicity and availability, this work aimed at studying chitosan modifications to produce potential Pickering particles. The studied modifications comprised self-aggregation, also called deprotonation, and crosslinking with sodium tripolyphosphate. The performance of these particles was evaluated in the emulsification of roasted coffee oil, a by-product of the coffee industry with a high content of bioactive and volatile compounds of interest. Subsequently, the physicochemical properties and stability of the microcapsules produced after drying the emulsions using spray-drying and lyophilization techniques were analyzed. All emulsions were characterized as shear-thinning, being them destabilized over the digestion process. Emulsions formulated with deprotonated chitosan nanoparticles and lower oil concentrations showed better stabilization and, consequently, greater bioaccessibility of total phenolic compounds. The different chitosan nanoparticles were characterized regarding surface charge, particle size distribution, microstructure and oil/water affinity. Deprotonated chitosan nanoparticles had a larger particle size, which resulted in emulsions with larger oil droplets. As the concentration of these particles increased, the viscosity of the emulsions was positively affected by the formation of a three-dimensional network in the continuous phase. The nanoparticles obtained by crosslinking with sodium tripolyphosphate were smaller, resulting in emulsions with smaller droplets. The viscosity of these emulsions was lower and little affected by the concentration of particles. Pickering emulsions containing 10% roasted coffee oil were spray-dried and freeze-dried, using the different studied chitosan nanoparticles and maltodextrin as carrier agents. The resulting microcapsules showed adequate moisture content, water activity and solubility for subsequent handling and storage. The presence of chitosan nanoparticles resulted in greater oil retention in the microcapsules and higher encapsulation efficiency. Microcapsules obtained by spray-drying had a more regular spherical shape, while the microparticles obtained by freeze-drying were larger with irregular morphology. Bioactive compounds and antioxidant properties were more preserved during freeze-drying. On the other hand, spray drying allowed greater protection of these compounds during the in vitro digestion. The spray- and freeze-dried microcapsules formulated with deprotonated nanoparticles were subjected to the storage test for 30 days at 25 ºC. During storage, their protection against lipid oxidation and volatile release were evaluated. The water sorption isotherms of these samples were previously determined under the storage conditions. Both samples presented type II isotherms, which resulted in a good fitting accuracy of the GAB model to the experimental data. The peroxide index and the conjugated dienes content resulted in adequate values during storage, although the freeze-dried samples showed a slightly higher tendency to oxidation due to the higher amount of surface oil. Although slight differences were observed between the dried samples, both of them showed less loss of total volatile compounds (~28%) when compared to the non-encapsulated oil (~51%) at the end of storage. Thus, it was concluded that the studied chitosan nanoparticles were efficient to encapsulate roasted coffee oil and to preserve its characteristics against the action of external agents. / The authors would like to thank the project RTI-2018-099738-B-C22 from the ‘Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades’, the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – Brazil (CAPES) - (Finance Code 001; Grant number 88887.468140/2019-00) and the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP – Grant number 2016/22727-8) for the financial support. / Franco Ribeiro, E. (2021). Microencapsulation of roasted coffee oil from chitosan nanoparticles-stabilized Pickering emulsions [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/163234 / TESIS / Compendio

Tesis por compendio / [EN] The main goal of this Thesis was to determine the influence of the main processing stages involved in obtaining natural extracts with high antioxidant potential from byproducts originating in the olive oil industry. Firstly, the effect of freezing and/or the drying methods applied to olive oil byproducts on the polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity of the extracts subsequently obtained was addressed. For this purpose, two byproducts were considered: olive leaves and olive pomace. Secondly, the feasibility of intensifying the extraction of olive leaf polyphenols by means of a new technology, such as power ultrasound, was approached taking both compositional and kinetic issues into account. Thirdly, how the processing conditions (drying and extraction) influence the extract's stability was evaluated. Thus, on the one hand, extracts obtained from olive leaves were subjected to in vitro digestion or dehydrated and stored at different conditions. Finally, the possibility of obtaining a dried vegetable matrix (apple) rich in olive leaf phenolic compounds was explored by addressing the influence of apple pretreatments (blanching and freezing) and drying on the final retention of infused phenolics. The antioxidant potential of extracts and the retention of infused polyphenols in apple were evaluated by means of the total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity analysis, as well as the identification and quantification of the main olive leaf polyphenols by HPLC-DAD/MS-MS. Moreover, in apple samples, the polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activity and microstructure were also analyzed. The experimental results highlighted that both drying and freezing methods significantly (p<0.05) influenced the concentration of the main polyphenols identified in the olive leaf extracts. Thus, drying at the highest temperature tested was the best processing condition in which to obtain extracts with high antioxidant capacity and phenolic content. Ultrasound application was found to be a relevant, non-thermal way of speeding-up the antioxidant extraction from olive leaves. Thus, by appropriately tuning-up the process variables, the ultrasonic assisted extraction shortened the extraction time from the 24 h needed in conventional extraction to 15 min, without modifying either the extract composition or the antioxidant potential. As far as extract stability is concerned, the processing conditions used for obtaining the olive leaf extracts did not have a meaningful influence on bioaccessibility. Regardless of the method used, stabilizing the extracts by means of dehydration only reduced both the antioxidant capacity and the total phenolic content by around 10 %. Moreover, storage conditions did not show a significant (p<0.05) effect on the antioxidant potential of the extracts for 28 days of storage. A stable dried product (apple), rich in natural phenolic compounds (from olive leaves or tea extracts), was obtained by combining drying-impregnation-drying steps. However, it should be considered that the role of fresh apple drying on the retention of infused olive leaf polyphenols was more important than the further drying of the impregnated apple. In overall terms, olive leaves can be considered a potential source of natural phenolic compounds. Notwithstanding this, the previous drying and freezing steps applied in the raw material processing are decisive factors in the obtaining of natural extracts with high antioxidant potential. Moreover, enhancing the extraction by applying power ultrasound was stated as a non-thermal way of shortening processing times. The stability of olive polyphenols during storage and in vitro digestion was closely related to the individual component considered. Finally, the exploitation of olive leaf extracts as a means of enriching solid foodstuffs requires the use of porous solid matrices free of oxidative enzymes. / [ES] El objetivo principal de esta Tesis fue determinar la influencia de las principales etapas de procesado implicadas en la obtención de extractos naturales con alto potencial antioxidante a partir de los subproductos originados en la industria del aceite de oliva. En primer lugar, se evaluó el efecto de los métodos de congelación y/o secado de la materia prima (hojas y orujo), sobre el contenido polifénolico y la capacidad antioxidante de los extractos. En segundo lugar, se abordó la intensificación de la extracción de polifenoles de hoja de olivo con ultrasonidos de potencia, teniendo en cuenta: composición y la cinética del proceso. A continuación, se estudió cómo las condiciones de procesado (secado y extracción) podían influir en la estabilidad de los extractos. Así, extractos de hojas de olivo fueron sometidos a digestión in vitro o deshidratados y almacenados a distintas condiciones. Por último, se exploró la posibilidad de obtener una matriz vegetal deshidratada (manzana) y rica en compuestos fenólicos de hoja de olivo. Para ello, se evaluó la influencia de los pretratamientos de la manzana (escaldado y congelación) y del secado en la retención final de los polifenoles impregnados. El potencial antioxidante se determinó a través del contenido total en compuestos fenólicos y la capacidad antioxidante y la identificación y cuantificación (HPLC-DAD/MS-MS) de los principales polifenoles. Además, en manzana, se midió la actividad enzimática de la polifenol oxidasa y peroxidasa y se analizó la microestructura. Los resultados manifestaron que el método de secado y el de congelación influyeron significativamente (p<0.05) en la concentración de los principales polifenoles en los extractos. Así, el secado a mayor temperatura resultó ser el mejor tratamiento para obtener extractos con alta capacidad antioxidante y alto contenido fenólico. La aplicación de ultrasonidos resultó ser una alternativa no térmica muy interesante para acelerar la extracción de antioxidantes de hojas de olivo. Con la combinación adecuada de las variables del proceso, la aplicación de ultrasonidos redujo el tiempo de extracción de 24 h necesarias en extracción convencional a 15 min, sin modificar la composición de los extractos y su potencial antioxidante. En cuanto a la estabilidad del extracto, las condiciones de procesado no tuvieron una influencia significativa en la bioaccesibilidad de los extractos. Independientemente del método utilizado, la estabilización de extractos por deshidratación sólo redujo la capacidad antioxidante y el contenido total en compuestos fenólicos en torno a un 10 %. Además, las condiciones de almacenamiento no mostraron ningún efecto significativo (p<0.05) sobre el potencial antioxidante durante los 28 días de almacenamiento. Combinando secado-impregnación-secado, fue posible desarrollar un producto deshidratado (manzana), estable y rico en compuestos fenólicos naturales (de hojas de olivo o extractos de té). No obstante, cabe destacar que el secado de la manzana fresca jugó un papel más importante en la retención de los polifenoles de hoja de olivo infundidos que el secado final de la manzana impregnada. En términos generales, las hojas de olivo pueden considerarse como una fuente potencial de compuestos fenólicos naturales. No obstante, el secado y la congelación durante el procesado de la materia prima son factores decisivos para la obtención de extractos naturales con alto potencial antioxidante. Además, la aplicación de ultrasonidos de potencia durante la extracción puede resultar una alternativa no térmica muy interesante de cara a acortar el tiempo de procesado. La estabilidad de los polifenoles de la hoja de olivo, durante el almacenamiento y la digestión in vitro, dependió claramente del compuesto individual considerado. Finalmente, el empleo del extracto de hoja de olivo como medio para enriquecer alimentos sólidos requiere del uso de matrices s / [CA] L'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi va ser determinar la influència de les principals etapes de processament implicades en l'obtenció d'extractes naturals amb alt potencial antioxidant procedents de subproductes de la indústria de l'oli d'oliva. En primer lloc, es va estudiar l'efecte de la congelació i/o els mètodes d'assecatge aplicats a fulles d'olivera i pinyolada sobre el contingut fenòlic i la capacitat antioxidant dels extractes. En segon lloc, es va avaluar, tenint en compte la composició i la cinètica del procés, la intensificació de l'extracció de polifenols de fulla d'olivera amb ultrasons de potència. En tercer lloc, es va avaluar com les condicions de processament (assecatge i extracció) poden influir en l'estabilitat dels extractes. Així, extractes de fulles d'olivera van ser sotmesos a una digestió in vitro o deshidratats i emmagatzemats a distintes condicions. Finalment, es va explorar la obtenció d'una matriu vegetal deshidratada (poma) i rica en compostos fenòlics de fulla d'olivera considerant la influència del pretractament de la poma (escaldament i congelació) i de l'assecatge sobre la retenció final dels fenòlics introduïts en la poma. El potencial antioxidant es va avaluar determinant el contingut fenòlic total i la capacitat antioxidant, així com identificant i quantificant els principals polifenols (HPLC-DAD/MS-MS). A més, en poma l'activitat enzimàtica de la polifenoloxidasa i la peroxidasa i la microestructura. Els resultats experimentals van destacar que el mètode d'assecatge i el de congelació van influir significativament (p<0,05) en la concentració dels principals polifenols identificats en els extractes. L'assecatge a la temperatura més alta que es va provar va resultar la millor condició de processament per a obtenir extractes amb una alta capacitat antioxidant i un alt contingut fenòlic. L'aplicació d'ultrasons va ser una manera rellevant i no tèrmica d'accelerar l'extracció d'antioxidants de les fulles d'olivera. Així, amb la combinació adequada de les variables del procés, l'extracció assistida per ultrasons va escurçar el temps d'extracció, de les 24 h requerides en l'extracció convencional a 15 min, sense modificar la composició de l'extracte ni el potencial antioxidant. Quant a l'estabilitat de l'extracte, les condicions de processament utilitzades per a l'obtenció dels extractes de fulla d'olivera no van tenir una influència significativa en la bioaccessibilitat. Independentment del mètode utilitzat, l'estabilització dels extractes per mitjà de la deshidratació només va reduir la capacitat antioxidant i el contingut fenòlic total al voltant d'un 10 %. A més, les condicions d'emmagatzematge (temperatura i forma de l'extracte: líquid o pols) no van mostrar cap efecte significatiu (p<0,05) en el potencial antioxidant dels extractes durant els 28 dies d'emmagatzematge. Combinant etapes d'assecatge-impregnació-assecatge fou possible obtenir un producte assecat estable (poma) i ric en compostos fenòlics naturals (de fulles d'olivera o te). No obstant això, cal destacar que l'assecatge de la poma fresca va ser més important i determinant en la retenció dels polifenols de fulla d'olivera que no l'assecatge de la poma impregnada. En termes generals, les fulles d'olivera es poden considerar com una font potencial de compostos fenòlics naturals. No obstant això, l'aplicació d'assecatge i congelació durant el processament de la matèria primera són factors decisius per a l'obtenció d'extractes naturals amb un alt potencial antioxidant. A més, l'aplicació d'ultrasons de potència durant l'extracció resultà ser una forma no tèrmica de millorar el procés, tot reduint-ne el temps d'extracció. L'estabilitat dels polifenols d'olivera durant l'emmagatzematge i la digestió in vitro va dependre del compost individual considerat. Finalment, la utilització d'extractes de fulla d'olivera per a desenvolupar aliments sòlids enriquits requ / Ahmad-Qasem Mateo, MH. (2015). ASSESSMENT OF THE INFLUENCE OF PROCESSING CONDITIONS ON THE ANTIOXIDANT POTENTIAL OF EXTRACTS OBTAINED FROM OLIVE OIL INDUSTRY BYPRODUCTS [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/53452 / TESIS / Premios Extraordinarios de tesis doctorales / Compendio