CAPES / Neste trabalho é descrito um sensor de índice de refração baseado em redes de Bragg em fibra multimodo para o setor de combustíveis líquidos. A utilização dos dispositivos propostos visa superar as desvantagens associadas com a monitoração de amostras de índice de refração elevados. A sensibilidade do transdutor pode ser adaptada, ajustando o diâmetro final da fibra na qual a rede de Bragg é gravada. Devido à relação entre a razão sinal-ruído e a sensibilidade, os parâmetros do sensor devem ser otimizados para obter uma faixa dinâmica de índice de refração adequada para aplicações específicas. A características metrológicas do sensor são determinadas, resultando em resoluções entre 5,6% v/v e 0,4% v/v para os índices de refração variando entre 1,4562 e 1,4729. Os resultados mostram o potencial do dispositivo em aplicações específicas relativas à avaliação da qualidade do biodiesel e análise de conformidade de misturas diesel-biodiesel. / In this work, a multimode fiber Bragg refractive sensor for the liquid fuel sector is described. The use of etched devices is proposed to overcome the drawbacks associated with sensing high refractive index samples employing fiber transducers. The transducer sensitivity can be tailored by adjusting the final diameter of the etched Bragg grating. Due to a trade between the signal-to-noise ratio and the sensitivity, operational parameters of the sensor must be designed to match the expected refractive index dynamic range for specific applications. Metrological properties of the sensor are determined, resulting in resolution from 5.6% v/v to 0.4% v/v for refractive indexes ranging from 1.4562 to 1.4729. Specific applications regarding the quality assessment of biodiesel and conformity analysis of diesel- biodiesel blends are discussed.

CNPq / Uma alternativa para as análises tradicionais do biodiesel e misturas BX, como a cromatografia, a espectroscopia e a ressonância magnética nuclear, é a análise por meio de um transdutor de índice de refração a fibra ótica, como uma LPG. Entretanto, como os índices de refração do biodiesel e do óleo diesel são próximos ou maiores do que o índice de refração da casca da fibra na qual a rede se encontra, há uma grande perda de energia para o meio externo, comprometendo a eficiência do sensor. Com o propósito de diminuir o índice de refração do biodiesel, uma substância miscível e de baixo índice de refração, o ciclohexano, foi escolhida para ser misturada a esse biocombustível, assim como à mistura óleo diesel-biodiesel. Os resultados obtidos mostram que o ciclohexano não é reagente com essas substâncias, atuando apenas como solvente. Além disso, as diluições 1:1 e 1:2 (uma parte de mistura BX para uma parte de ciclohexano; uma parte de mistura BX para duas partes de ciclohexano) têm índices de refração menores do que o da casca da fibra, o que faz com que a banda ressonante seja deslocada para menores comprimentos de onda, possibilitando, assim, a detecção por meio da LPG. Após as curvas de calibração serem representadas em gráficos de variação de comprimento de onda (nm) em função da concentração de biodiesel em óleo diesel, BX (% v/v), para as duas diluições, obteve-se, por meio da derivada desta, a sensibilidade. As características metrológicas foram calculadas, levando à obtenção da incerteza expandida, que é de 3,7 % para a diluição 1:1 e de 5,9 % para a diluição 1:2, para um nível de confiança de 95,45 %. / An alternative for the traditional biodiesel and BX blends analysis (X is the biodiesel volumetric concentration in the blend), such as chromatography, spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance, is by means of an optical fiber refractive index transducer, such as an LPG. However, as the biodiesel and diesel refractive index are close or bigger than the fiber cladding index, there is an important loss of power to the surrounding environment, impairing the sensor performance. In order to decrease the refractive index of biodiesel, a miscible and low refractive index substance, cyclohexane, was chosen to blend to this biofuel and also to the biodiesel-diesel blend. The results show that the cyclohexane does not react with biodiesel, acting only as a solvent. Besides, the 1:1 and 1:2 dilution (one part of BX blend and one part of cyclohexane in volume concentration; one part of BX blend and two parts of cyclohexane in volume concentration) have a refractive index lower than the fiber cladding, what shifts the resonant band of the LPG towards lower wavelengths. After representing the calibration curves in graphics of wavelength shift (nm) as function of biodiesel-diesel blend concentration, BX (% v/v), for both dilution, the concentration sensitivity has been obtained. The metrological characteristics were calculated, leading to the expanded uncertainty, which is 3,7 % for the 1:1 dilution and 5,9 % for the 1:2 dilution, for a 95,45 % confidence level.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Este trabalho descreve a avaliação do processo oxidativo do biodiesel metílico da macaúba, na ausência e na presença dos antioxidantes sintéticos e naturais. O biodiesel foi obtido por meio da transesterificação do óleo da amêndoa da Macaúba utilizando ácido p-toluenossulfônico como catalisador. Por meio de análises termogravimétricas foi possível verificar o teor de éster presente no biodiesel. O biodiesel obtido via reação de transesterificação do óleo da amêndoa da Macaúba foi submetido a testes acelerados de degradação térmica por um período de 6 horas a 150 ºC e ao teste de oxidação em estufa por um período de 30 dias a 65 ºC com as seguintes concentrações de BHT: 100, 500, 1000 e 5000.Os resultados de índice de acidez, peróxido, iodo e espectroscopia na região do IV comprovaram que ambos os métodos de oxidação foram capazes de degradar o biodiesel e demonstraram que o BHT foi capaz de minimizar a oxidação no biodiesel apenas na concentração de 5000 ppm. Ensaios com β-naftol e extrato de compostos fenólicos proveniente do bagaço de uva foram realizados empregando o teste acelerado de degradação. Os testes com as amostras contendo β-naftol foram realizados utilizando as concentrações de 1000 e 5000 ppm do antioxidante e em ambas as concentrações o β-naftol apresentou potencial em inibir a oxidação das amostras, sendo os melhores resultados atribuídos a concentração de 5000 ppm. O extrato do bagaço de uva foi obtido pela extração em Soxhlet e ultrassom. O extrato obtido por Soxhlet foi submetido aos testes utilizando concentrações de 1000 e 5000 ppm equivalente aos compostos fenólicos, também foi preparada uma amostra com 5000 ppm de extrato obtido pela extração por ultrassom. Os resultados para esse teste demonstraram que os extratos não foram eficazes em inibir a oxidação nas amostras. Entre os ensaios com extrato o de 5000 ppm por ultrassom apresentou os menores índices de acidez, peróxido e iodo. Estudo com o uso desse antioxidante em maiores concentrações se torna relevante. Por fim ao comparar todos os antioxidantes analisados, o β-naftol foi considerado o mais eficaz. / This work is about the evaluation of processing methyl oxidative biodiesel from macaúba, with and without natural and synthetic antioxidants. The biodiesel was obtained from the transesterification of the macaúba’s almond oil and using p-toluenesulfonic as a catalyst. It could be verified through thermogravimetric analysis the ester content in the biodiesel. The biodiesel obtained thru the transesterification of the macaúba’s almond oil was subjected to accelerated tests of thermal degradation for a period of 6 hours at 150 ° C and the oxidation test in the stove for 30 days at 65 ° C with the following BHT concentrations: 100, 500, 1000 and 5000. The acidity index results, peroxide, iodine and IV spectroscopy in the region showed that both oxidation methods were capable of degrading biodiesel and demonstrated that the BHT was able to minimize oxidation of biodiesel only at a concentration of 5000 ppm. Trials with β-naphthol and extract phenolics from grape pomace were performed using the accelerated degradation tests. The tests with samples containing β-naphthol were carried out using concentrations of 1000 and 5000 ppm of the antioxidant and at both concentrations the β-naphthol has the potential to inhibit oxidation of the samples, with the best results attributed to concentration of 5000 ppm. Grape pomace extract was obtained by extracting in a Soxhlet and ultrasound .The extract obtained by Soxhlet was subjected to tests using concentrations of 1000 and 5000 ppm equivalent of phenolic compounds, it was also prepared a sample with 5000 ppm of extract obtained by extraction by ultrasound. The results for this test showed that the extracts were not effective in inhibit oxidation in samples. Between rehearsals with the extract of 5000 ppm ultrasound showed the lowest acidity index, peroxide and iodine. Study with the use of this antioxidant in higher concentrations is relevant. Finally when comparing all antioxidants analyzed, β-naphthol was considered the most effective.

Sistemas híbridos consistem de duas ou mais fontes geradoras de eletricidade, normalmente uma ou mais fontes convencionais e uma ou mais fontes renováveis e, objetivam promover a economia de combustível e obter uma fonte confiável de suprimento de energia, podendo estar ou não conectados a rede de distribuição. Este trabalho objetiva avaliar através do software HOMER, a viabilidade técnica, econômica e ambiental de implantação de um sistema híbrido de geração de eletricidade. Este sistema é composto por gerador movido a biogás, gerador movido a biodiesel e captação de energia solar. Todo o sistema está localizado no município de Serafina Corrêa onde há elevada concentração de suinocultores que, através do tratamento dos resíduos suinícolas poderá levar a produção de biogás para ser aproveitado como combustível para geração de energia elétrica. Diversas configurações foram avaliadas sob aspecto econômico e ambiental. A configuração ótima da estrutura do sistema híbrido foi a composta por geração elétrica a partir de painéis fotovoltaicos com 172,4 kW, gerador a biogás 55 kW e inversor de frequência de 110 kW. Neste cenário, o capital inicial soma R$ 1.150.055,00, valor presente líquido de R$ 1.150.004,00 e o custo da energia (COE) é de R$ 0,22/kW. O payback definido pelo software é de 7,1 anos, mostrando-se economicamente viável. Neste contexto, o software HOMER apresenta-se como importante ferramenta a tomada de decisões configurando-se como método de avaliação quanto ao melhor cenário para instalação de sistemas híbridos. / Hybrid systems consist of two or more electricity generating sources, usually one or more conventional sources and one or more renewable sources, and aim to promote fuel economy and obtain a reliable source of energy supply, off-grid or grid-connected to the distribution network. This work aims to evaluate through the HOMER software the technical, economic and environmental feasibility of implementing a hybrid electricity generation system. This system consists of a biogas generator, biodiesel generator and solar energy capture. The entire system is located in the municipality of Serafina Corrêa where there is a high concentration of swine farmers that, through the treatment of pig waste, can lead to the production of biogas to be used as fuel for electric power generation. Several configurations were evaluated under economic and environmental aspect. The optimum configuration of the hybrid system structure is composed of electric generation from photovoltaic panels with 172,4 kW, 55 kW biogas generator and 110 kW inverter. In this scenario, the initial capital amounts to R$ 1.150.055,00, net present value of R$ 1.150.004,00 and the cost of energy (COE) is R$ 0.22. The payback defined by the software is 7.1 years, proving to be economically viable. In this context, the HOMER software presents itself as an important decision-making tool, being configured as an evaluation method for the best scenario for the installation of hybrid systems.

Orientadores: Inacio Maria Dal Fabbro, Pedro Jose Catuogno / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Agricola / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-10T20:58:27Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Pagliardi_Odail_D.pdf: 1063472 bytes, checksum: ba22d0625b05ccf8c440426839d7242d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: O objetivo do trabalho foi apresentar, via mercado de opções, um modelo para orientação dos agentes financeiros quanto à redução de risco financeiro presente em um empreendimento do setor agrícola. Devido ao momento vivido pelos biocombustíveis, o biodiesel foi o ativo escolhido para análise, inclusive pela riqueza apresentada na modelagem. O biodiesel tem como matérias-primas, os óleos de origem vegetal e das gorduras animais. Nesse sentido, a cesta de insumos para a produção final do biodiesel pode ser composta com diferentes proporções desses insumos, cujos preços de mercado estão correlacionados e, adicionalmente, suas volatilidades estão variando no decorrer dos diversos períodos de análise. O modelo proposto para analisar essa cesta é o tradicional modelo de Black-Scholes. Contudo, a equação diferencial para estimar o valor da opção da cesta, ou seja, o prêmio (¿seguro¿), é bem complexa, pois estão presentes os preços individuais dos insumos. Métodos numéricos devem ser utilizados para estimar as opções americanas. Todavia, devido à dimensão do problema, ou seja, devido ao número de ativos presentes, cujos preços estão correlacionados e com volatilidades não constantes, foi utilizada a simulação de Monte Carlo. Para possibilitar o uso desse instrumento nas opções americanas lançou-se mãos do algoritmo desenvolvido por Longstaff e Schwartz. Dois produtos foram propostos no trabalho, uma opção asiática e outra com barreira, ambas opções exóticas do tipo americanas. A asiática permite amenizar a volatilidade do ativo e, assim, limita a ação de grandes grupos no controle dos preços do ativo. Quanto à opção com barreira, está presente a idéia de preço mínimo / Abstract: The aim of this research was to present a model to guide the agents involved in the market to reduce the financial risk of a project in the agriculture. Due the moment favorable to the bio-combustible and of the richness of the modeling involved, the biodiesel was chosen to analyze. The biodiesel production includes a basket of vegetal oils and also animal fats, representing the ¿basic raw material¿. The basket can be composed by different proportions of oils, which prices have inter-relations and the assets have not constant volatilities. The methodology proposed to be applied to the basket of oils is the traditional Black-Scholes model. However, the differential equation to evaluate of the basket, i.e. the premium is very complex because all the oil prices are present. Numerical methods are proposed to estimate the American options. Nevertheless due the dimension of the problem, i.e. due the number of assts, with correlations among the prices, and volatilities not constants, it was employed the Monte Carlo simulation, assisted by the Longstaff-Schwartz algorithm to make possible the employment of that tool at the American options. Two American exotic options have been presented: one Asian option and another one with barrier. The Asian one allows smooth the volatility of the basket and then avoids that great enterprises control the market. The barrier option is the choice of a minimum basket price / Doutorado / Maquinas Agricolas / Doutor em Engenharia Agrícola

Orientadores: Antonio José de Almeida Meirelles, Mariana Conceição da Costa, Jérôme Pauly / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-24T15:58:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Carareto_NataliaDanieleDorighello_D.pdf: 2781126 bytes, checksum: a569200223f2c962deb5f7e6129613dd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: O estudo das propriedades físico-químicas de materiais graxos é uma demanda mundial crescente, principalmente devido ao incentivo do seu uso como fonte de energia e para a alimentação. Faz-se importante estudar e compreender todas as condições de equilíbrio que podem ser observadas durante o processamento de compostos graxos, por exemplo, óleos vegetais e biodieseis, desde a sua extração, refino e estocagem. Dados de equilíbrio sólido-líquido podem ser usados para melhorar ou propor novos processos de separação. Já o ponto de fulgor é uma propriedade importante que deve ser observada no armazenamento, transporte e produção de compostos inflamáveis, como o biodiesel. Este trabalho teve como objetivos estudar o equilíbrio sólido-líquido de misturas binárias graxas formadas por álcoois graxos, ésteres graxos ou ácidos graxos, e avaliar o ponto de fulgor de misturas de ésteres etílicos, que são constituintes principais de biodieseis, e etanol, presente em teores residuais. Os pontos de fulgor de ésteres etílicos, e também de misturas binárias destes ésteres com etanol foram determinados experimentalmente e a partir dos resultados foi proposto um modelo empírico para a predição do ponto de fulgor de biodieseis em função da sua composição e teor de etanol. Os diagramas de equilíbrio sólido-líquido de sistemas binários formados por ácidos + álcoois graxos ou formados por álcoois + álcoois graxos foram determinados experimentalmente através de calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC) com a intenção de melhor compreender as reações eutética, peritética e metatética que aparecem nos diagramas de equilíbrio tanto com taxas de aquecimento linear ou via o uso da ferramenta de stepscan DSC. Para complementar o estudo foram usadas técnicas de difração de Raios-X e microscopia óptica com controle de temperatura. O efeito da pressão sobre o equilíbrio sólido-líquido foi avaliado para misturas binárias de ésteres etílicos ou de álcoois graxos utilizando-se microscopia ótica acoplada a um aparato experimental que permite o aumento da pressão até 80 MPa. Foram utilizados os modelos termodinâmicos para coeficiente de atividade Margules 2 e 3-sufixos e NRTL para descrever a linha liquidus dos sistemas que apresentaram ponto peritético, e um modelo termodinâmico preditivo foi aplicado para modelar o ESL em função da pressão e, em ambos os casos, obteve-se um ajuste satisfatório em comparação aos dados experimentais / Abstract: The study on the physicochemical properties of fatty materials has acquired a growing importance, mainly due to the incentive of their use in energy and nutrition. The efficient production and use of fatty compounds requires a good knowledge of their properties and phase behavior that are necessary for development of processes, especially in production steps such as extraction and refining, but also during storage of the final products. Solid-liquid equilibrium data can be used to improve or propose new separation processes. Also the flash point is an important property that must be considered during storage, transportation and production of flammable compounds, such as biodiesel. This work aimed to study the solid-liquid equilibrium of binary mixtures consisting of fatty alcohols, fatty esters or fatty acids, and to evaluate the flash point of mixtures of ethyl esters, the major constituents of biodiesels, and ethanol, also present in biodiesel in residual levels. Flash points of ethyl esters, and also of the binary mixtures of ethyl esters with ethanol were determined experimentally. An empirical model for predicting the flash point of biodiesels as a function of composition and ethanol content was proposed. The solid-liquid phase diagrams of binary mixtures of fatty alcohol + fatty alcohol or fatty alcohols + fatty acid were determined experimentally by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), using a linear heating rate, or by a stepscan DSC method, with the aim of investigating the occurrence of the eutectic, peritectic and metatectic reactions. X-ray diffraction and optical microscopy with temperature control techniques were applied to complement the understanding of the phase diagrams. The effect of pressure on the solid-liquid equilibrium was investigated for the binary mixtures of ethyl esters or fatty alcohols using an optical microscope coupled to a high pressure cell which allows the pressure increase up to 80 MPa. Margules 2 and 3-suffix and NRTL thermodynamic models were used for describing the liquidus line of the systems that presented peritectic point, and a predictive thermodynamic model was used to model the ESL function of pressure, which in both cases, gave a satisfactory fit compared to the experimental data / Doutorado / Engenharia de Alimentos / Doutora em Engenharia de Alimentos

Made available in DSpace on 2017-06-01T18:20:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertacao_fernando_luiz.pdf: 33790100 bytes, checksum: c4cc04374bb2b0dcd638242804eebd1f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-03-24 / The recovery of by-products like glycerin and cake from oilseeds, resulting in the production of biodiesel, has been the main alternative to make this biofuel competitive compared to petroleum and diesel oil. This alternative can be associated with a beneficial integration of processes, such as use of glycerin as a solvent for separation of ethanol-water mixture in plants alcohol. Thus, the use of glycerin in place of ethylene glycol, a substance of fossil origin was tested. The glycerin eliminates the azeotrope formed by modification of the liquid-vapor equilibrium of ethanol-water mixture, increasing the difference in volatility between these components. To verify the operating conditions suitable for the process of extractive distillation for ethanol dehydration, experiments were performed in laboratory scale, using a central composite rotational design (CCRD). The independent variables were the molar fraction glycerol / water and the degree of vacuum, the latter as a way to avoid thermal decomposition of glycerol into acrolein. The analysis of the response surfaces showed that the molar fraction glycerin / ethanol becomes appropriate than 0.4 and the absolute pressure of the system is adequate around 380 mm Hg. In this way it was possible to obtain a statistical model for simulation and prediction of appropriate conditions to the process for developing a technology that prior actions to preserve the environment. / A valorização dos subprodutos como a glicerina e a torta de oleaginosas, originados no processo de produção de biodiesel, tem sido a principal alternativa para tornar esse biocombustível competitivo em relação ao diesel de petróleo. Essa alternativa pode estar associada a uma vantajosa integração de processos, como é o caso de utilização da glicerina como solvente para separação da mistura etanol-água em usinas de álcool. Para isso, estudou-se a utilização da glicerina em substituição ao etilenoglicol, esta última substância de origem fóssil. A glicerina elimina o azeótropo formado pela modificação do equilíbrio líquido-vapor da mistura etanol-água, aumentando a diferença de volatilidade entre esses componentes. Para verificação das condições operacionais adequadas ao processo de destilação extrativa de desidratação do etanol, foram realizados experimentos em escala de laboratório, com auxílio de um Delineamento Composto Central Rotacional (DCCR). As variáveis independentes foram a fração molar glicerina/água e o grau de vácuo, este último como forma de se evitar a decomposição térmica da glicerina em acroleína. A análise das superfícies de resposta mostrou que a fração molar glicerina/etanol torna-se adequada acima de 0,4 e que a pressão absoluta do sistema torna-se adequada em torno de 380 mm Hg. Com isto, obteve-se um modelo estatístico de simulação e a previsão de condições adequadas ao processo, para o desenvolvimento de uma tecnologia que privilegie as ações de preservação ao meio ambiente.

M. Tech. (Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology), Vaal University of Technology. / This study presents the use of sodium methoxide as a homogeneous catalyst and impregnated Perlite (potassium hydroxide/perlite) as heterogeneous catalyst for production of biodiesel using Baobab and Marula oil respectively. One factor at a time experimental design was used to study the effect of temperature, time, amount of catalyst and methanol to oil ratio on the transesterification of baobab oil using sodium methoxide as a catalyst. Response surface methodology was used to study the effect of temperature, time, amount of catalyst and methanol to oil ratio on the transesterification of marula oil using perlite as a catalyst. Biodiesel yield produced using sodium methoxide and baobab oil was 96% at 1 hr reaction time, 30 wt.% methanol to oil ratio, 1 gram of catalyst and 60°C reaction conditions. Biodiesel yield produced using perlite and marula oil was 91.38% at 3.55 hr reaction time, 29.86 wt.% methanol to oil ratio, 3.46 grams of catalyst and 70.41°C reaction conditions. Perlite catalyst was reusable for transesterification of marula oil while sodium methoxide was not reusable for transesterification of baobab oil. Baobab and Marula biodiesel fuel properties are comparable to American Society for Testing Materials standard (ASTM).

Thesis (MScEng (Process Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / Biodiesel, a fatty acid alkyl ester, derived from the transesterfication of vegetable oil, is considered a renewable fuel that can be used as a replacement for fossil diesel. The urgency for biofuel production in South Africa is motivated by the vulnerability of crude oil prices, high unemployment, climate change concerns and the need for the growing economy to use its resources in a sustainable manner. The technical feasibility of biodiesel production has been proven and this study investigates its preliminary economic feasibility in South Africa by looking at the market, financial and agricultural feasibility of commercial biodiesel production. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Biodiesel, a fatty acid alkyl ester, derived from the transesterfication of vegetable oil, is considered a renewable fuel that can be used as a replacement for fossil diesel. The urgency for biofuel production in South Africa is motivated by the vulnerability of crude oil prices,high unemployment, climate change concerns and the need for the growing economy to use its resources in a sustainable manner. The technical feasibility of biodiesel production has been proven and this study investigates its preliminary economic feasibility in South Africa by looking at the market, financial and agricultural feasibility of commercial biodiesel production. The market feasibility. The potential market size for biodiesel in South Africa is about 1 billion litres if it is to replace 10% of its diesel consumption by 2010. However, governmental legislation and policies are needed to create a predictable and growing market for biodiesel in South Africa. These policies or regulations could be in the form of subsidising feedstock for biodiesel production, subsidising the biodiesel itself, using government purchasing power, mandatory blending legislation, tax incentives or price compensation agreements. The financial feasibility. Calculations to asses the financial feasibility of commercial biodiesel production are based on a 2500 kg/h (22.5 million litres/annum) containerized plant. This size is based on findings of Amigun & von Blottnitz (2005) that the optimum biodiesel plant size in South Africa ranges between 1500 and 3000 kg/h. Two types of plants were considered, namely a seed extraction biodiesel production (SEBP) plant using locally produced oilseeds as feedstock and a crude oil biodiesel production (COBP) plant using imported crude vegetable oil as feedstock. The capital investment for a SEBP plant ranges between R110 and R145 million while a COBP plant would require a capital investment of about R45 to R50 million. These amounts include a working capital of about R35 million due to money that is fixed in a 3 month stock supply.Feedstock and raw material contribute to about 80% of the manufacturing cost while transport costs are the second biggest contributor. These results point to the fact that the plant location is very important in order to minimize production costs. Thus, commercial biodiesel production should not be centralized, but should rather happen through greater number of relatively small plants located in oilseed producing regions. (South Africa would require about 46 plants each producing 2500 kg/h to produce 10% of its diesel by 2010). The sensitivity analyses showed that the manufacturing costs of a SEBP plant are very sensitive to changes in oilseed and oilcake prices while the manufacturing costs of a COBP plant are very sensitive to a change in crude vegetable oil price. The fluctuating nature of the agricultural commodity prices makes biodiesel manufacturing costs predictable. Soybean biodiesel costs are the most sensitive to price changes while sunflower biodiesel costs are the least affected. An increase in glycerol price would decrease the manufacturing costs of biodiesel by about 12 cents/litre for every R1000/ton increase in price. Glycerol prices are currently too low to consider in the calculations due to a global oversupply as a result of biodiesel production. The break even price of biodiesel is calculated by adding R1.01/litre fuel tax to the manufacturing cost, which means that biodiesel produced from oilseeds (except canola) will not be able to compete with the current price of fossil diesel (30 August 2006) without subsidies or legislation. The agricultural feasibility. Producing 10% of South Africa’s diesel using oilseeds would require a major production increase.Biodiesel production will also increase the local oilcake supply which means South Africa will change from being a net-importer of oilcake (730 thousand tons/year) to a net-exporter of oilcake (1.7 million tons/year). Land availability for such a production increase is not a problem which means that the agricultural resources and potential market are available to produce and absorb 10% of the countries diesel in the form of biodiesel. However, at the moment the commercial production of biodiesel does not seem financially feasible without any government imposed legislation or subsidies. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Biodiesel, ‘n hernubare brandstof wat uit groente olie vervaardig word, is ‘n moontlike plaasvervanger vir petroleum diesel. Biodiesel vervaardiging in Suid Afrika word aangespoor deur hoë kru olie pryse, hoë werkloosheid syfers, toenemende bewustheid van klimaatveranderings en druk op ‘n groeiende ekonomie om sy bronne volhoubaar te gebruik. Die vervaardiging van biodiesel is relatief maklik en hierdie studie is ‘n voorlopige ondersoek in die ekonomiese lewensvatbaarheid van komersiële biodiesel produksie in Suid Afrika deur te kyk na die mark, finansiële en landbou lewensvatbaarheid daarvan. Die mark lewensvatbaarheid. Die potensiële grote vir ‘n biodiesel mark in Suid Afrika is omtrent 1 miljard liter indien dit 10% van sy petroleum diesel teen 2010 wil vervang, maar wetgewing sal nodig wees om ‘n voorspelbare en groeiende mark te skep. Hierdie wetgewing kan in die vorm van subsidies vir boere of biodiesel produsente wees, gebruik maak van regerings koopkrag, verpligtende inmeng maatreëls, belasting voordele of prys vergoeding ooreenkomste. Die finansiële lewensvatbaarheid. Berekeninge om die finansiële lewensvatbaarheid te bepaal is op ‘n 2500 kg/uur (22.5 miljard liter/jaar) gedoen. Hierdie aanleg grote is gebaseer op inligting verkry deur Amigun & von Blottnitz (2005) wat sê dat die optimale grote biodiesel aanleg in Suid Afrika tussen 1500 en 3000 kg/uur is. Daar is na twee tipe aanlegte gekyk, naamlik na ‘n saad ekstraksie biodiesel vervaardigings (SEBP) aanleg wat plaaslike oliesade as voer materiaal gebruik en ‘n kru olie biodiesel vervaardigings (COBP) aanleg wat ingevoerde groente olie as voer materiaal gebruik. 'n SEBP aanleg het ‘n kapitale belegging van tussen R100 en R145 miljoen nodig terwyl ‘n COBP aanleg slegs tussen R45 en R50 miljoen nodig het. Hierdie bydrae sluit werkende kapitaal van omtrent R35 miljoen in wat vas is in 3 maande se voer materiaal kostes. Die onderstaande tabel wys die vervaardigings kostes vir albei tipe aanlegte en verskillende voer materiale. Omtrent 80% van die kostes is voer materiaal terwyl vervoerkostes die tweede hoogste bydraer is. Hierdie resultaat wys na die feit dat die aanleg ligging ‘n baie belangrike rol speel om vervaardigins kostes te minimeer. Dus word die stelling gemaak dat kommersiële biodiesel vervaardiging nie in ‘n paar sentrale aanlegte moet plaasvind nie, maar eerder in ‘n klomp verspreide relatief kleiner aanlegte moet plaasvind. Hierdie kleiner aanlegte sal in die oliesaad produserende streke versprei moet wees. (Suid Afrika sal omtrent 46 aanlegte nodig hê wat elk 2500 kg/uur produseer om 10% van sy diesel teen 2010 te kan vervaardig). Die sensitiwiteits analise het gewys dat die kostes van ‘n SEBP aanleg baie sensitief vir veranderings in oliesaad en oliekoek pryse is. Die kostes van ‘n COBP aanleg is baie sensitief vir veranderinge in groente olie pryse. Wisselvallige landbou pryse maak die kostes van biodiesel baie wisselvallig en onvoorspelbaar. Sojaboon biodiesel kostes is die sensitiefste vir prys veranderings terwyl sonneblom saad die minste geaffekteer word deur sulke prys veranderings. Vir elke R1000/ton wat die glyserol prys styg sal die vervaardigings kostes van biodiesel met 12 sent/liter daal. Die glyserol prys is op die oomblik te laag om in ag te neem weens ‘n oormaat glyserol in die wêreld mark as gevolg van biodiesel produksie. Die gelykbreek prys van biodiesel word uitgewerk deur R1.01/liter brandstof belasting by die vervaardigings kostes by te tel. Op die oomblik (30 Augustus 2006) kan biodiesel van oliesade (behalwe kanola) nie met die petroleum diesel prys meeding nie sonder enige subsidies of wetgewing. Die landbou lewensvatbaarheid. Die landbou implikasies om 10% van die land se diesel uit oliesade te vervaardig word in die onderstaande tabel uiteengesit. Hierdie resultate is gebaseer op die feit dat al drie oliesade gebruik word vir biodiesel vervaardiging en dat die oppervlak verhouding van die drie oliesade konstant bly soos die produksie vermeerder. Biodiesel vervaardiging sal ook die plaaslike oliekoek produksie vermeerder sodat Suid Afrika sal verander van ‘n netto-invoerder (730 duisend ton/jaar) tot ‘n netto-uitvoerder (1.7 miljoen ton/jaar) van oliekoek. Land beskikbaarheid vir so ‘n vermeerderde produksie is nie ‘n probleem nie wat beteken dat Suid Afrika wel die landbou bronne en potensiële mark het om 10% van sy diesel te vervaardig en te absorbeer in die vorm van biodiesel. Uit `n finansiële oogpunt lyk dit egter asof die kommersiële vervaardiging van biodiesel in Suid Afrika nie lewensvatbaar sal wees, sonder enige wetgewings of subsidies, nie. / Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies

Mobile source emissions are a major contributor to global and local air pollution. Governments and regulatory agencies have been increasing the stringency of regulations in the transportation sector for the last ten years to help curb transportation sector air pollution. The need for regulations has been emphasized by scientific research on the impacts from ambient pollution, especially research on the effect of particulate matter on human health. The particulate emissions from diesel vehicles, diesel particulate matter (DPM) is considered a known or probable carcinogen in various countries and increased exposure to DPM is linked to increased cardiovascular health problems in humans. The toxicity of vehicle emissions and diesel particulate emissions in particular, in conjunction with an increased awareness of potential petroleum fuel shortages, international conflict over petroleum fuel sources and climate change science, have all contributed to the increase of biodiesel use as an additive to or replacement for petroleum fuel. The goal of this research is to determine how this increased use of biodiesel in the particular emission testing setup impacts urban air quality. To determine if biodiesel use contributes to a health or climate benefit, both the size range and general composition were investigated using a comprehensive comparison of the particulate component of the emissions in real time. The emissions from various biodiesel and diesel mixtures from a common diesel passenger vehicle were measured with a cavity ring-down transmissometer (CRDT) coupled with a condensation particle counter, a SMPS, a nephelometer, NOx, CO, CO2, and O3 measurements. From these data, key emission factors for several biodiesel and diesel fuel mixtures were developed. This approach reduces sampling artifacts and allows for the determination of optical properties, particle number concentration, and size distributions, along with several important gas phase species' concentrations. Findings indicate that biodiesel additions to diesel fuel do not necessarily have an air quality benefit for particulate emissions in this emission testing scenario. The often cited linear decrease in particulate emissions with increasing biodiesel content was not observed. Mixtures with half diesel and half biodiesel tended to have the highest particulate emissions in all size ranges. Mixtures with more than 50% biodiesel had slightly lower calculated mass for light absorbing carbon, but this reduction in mass is most likely a result of a shift in the size of the emission particles to a smaller size range, not a reduction in the total number of particles. Evaluation of the extensive optical properties from this experimental set-up indicates that biodiesel additions to diesel fuel has an impact on emission particle extinction in both visible and near-IR wavelengths. The B99 mixture had the smallest emission factor for extinction at 532 nm and at 1064 nm. For the extinction at 532 nm, the trend was not linear and the emission factor peaked at the B50 mixture. Results from intensive properties indicate that emissions from B5 and B25 mixtures have Ångström exponents close to 1, typical for black carbon emissions. The mixtures with a larger fraction of biodiesel have Ångström exponent values closer to 2, indicating more absorbing organic matter and/or smaller particle size in the emissions. Additional experimental testing should be completed to determine the application of these results and emission factors to other diesel vehicles or types of diesel and biodiesel fuel mixtures.