Depuis plusieurs années, des projets d'intégration de données omiques se sont développés, notamment avec objectif de participer à la description fine de caractères complexes d'intérêt socio-économique. Dans ce contexte, l'objectif de cette thèse est de combiner différentes données omiques hétérogènes afin de mieux décrire et comprendre le dernier tiers de gestation chez le porc, période influençant la mortinatalité porcine. Durant cette thèse, nous avons identifié les bases moléculaires et cellulaires sous-jacentes de la fin de gestation, en particulier au niveau du muscle squelettique. Ce tissu est en effet déterminant à la naissance car impliqué dans l'efficacité de plusieurs fonctions physiologiques comme la thermorégulation et la capacité à se déplacer. Au niveau du plan expérimental, les tissus analysés proviennent de foetus prélevés à 90 et 110 jours de gestation (naissance à 114 jours), issus de deux lignées extrêmes pour la mortalité à la naissance, Large White et Meishan, et des deux croisements réciproques. Au travers l'application de plusieurs études statistiques et computationnelles (analyses multidimensionnelles, inférence de réseaux, clustering et intégration de données), nous avons montré l'existence de mécanismes biologiques régulant la maturité musculaire chez les porcelets, mais également chez d'autres espèces d'intérêt agronomique (bovin et mouton). Quelques gènes et protéines ont été identifiées comme étant fortement liées à la mise en place du métabolisme énergétique musculaire durant le dernier tiers de gestation. Les porcelets ayant une immaturité du métabolisme musculaire seraient sujets à un plus fort risque de mortalité à la naissance. Un second volet de cette thèse concerne l'imputation de données manquantes (tout un groupe de variables pour un individu) dans les méthodes d'analyses multidimensionnelles, comme l'analyse factorielle multiple (AFM) (ou multiple factor analysis (MFA)). Dans notre contexte, l'AFM fut particulièrement intéressante pour l'intégration de données d'un ensemble d'individus sur différents tissus (deux ou plus). Afin de conserver ces individus manquants pour tout un groupe de variables, nous avons développé une méthode, appelée MI-MFA (multiple imputation - MFA), permettant l'estimation des composantes de l'AFM pour ces individus manquants. / Over the last decades, some omics data integration studies have been developed to participate in the detailed description of complex traits with socio-economic interests. In this context, the aim of the thesis is to combine different heterogeneous omics data to better describe and understand the last third of gestation in pigs, period influencing the piglet mortality at birth. In the thesis, we better defined the molecular and cellular basis underlying the end of gestation, with a focus on the skeletal muscle. This tissue is specially involved in the efficiency of several physiological functions, such as thermoregulation and motor functions. According to the experimental design, tissues were collected at two days of gestation (90 or 110 days of gestation) from four fetal genotypes. These genotypes consisted in two extreme breeds for mortality at birth (Meishan and Large White) and two reciprocal crosses. Through statistical and computational analyses (descriptive analyses, network inference, clustering and biological data integration), we highlighted some biological mechanisms regulating the maturation process in pigs, but also in other livestock species (cattle and sheep). Some genes and proteins were identified as being highly involved in the muscle energy metabolism. Piglets with a muscular metabolism immaturity would be associated with a higher risk of mortality at birth. A second aspect of the thesis was the imputation of missing individual row values in the multidimensional statistical method framework, such as the multiple factor analysis (MFA). In our context, MFA was particularly interesting in integrating data coming from the same individuals on different tissues (two or more). To avoid missing individual row values, we developed a method, called MI-MFA (multiple imputation - MFA), allowing the estimation of the MFA components for these missing individuals.

Systems biology adopts an integrated approach to study and understand the function of biological systems, particularly, the response of such systems to perturbations, such as the inhibition of a reaction in a pathway, or the administration of a drug. The complexity and large scale of biological systems make modelling and simulation an essential and critical part of systems-level studies. Systems-level modelling of pathogenic organisms has the potential to significantly enhance drug discovery programmes. In this thesis, we show how systems--level models can positively impact anti-tubercular drug target identification. *Mycobacterium tuberculosis*, the principal aetiological agent of tuberculosis in humans, is estimated to cause two million deaths every year. The existing drugs, although of immense value in controlling the disease to some extent, have several shortcomings, the most important of them being the emergence of drug resistance rendering even the front-line drugs inactive. As drug discovery efforts are increasingly becoming rational, focussing at a molecular level, the identification of appropriate targets becomes a fundamental pre-requisite. We have constructed many system-level models, to identify drug targets for tuberculosis. We construct a constraint-based stoichiometric model of mycolic acid biosynthesis, and simulate it using flux balance analysis, to identify critical points in mycobacterial metabolism for targeting drugs. We then analyse protein--protein functional linkage networks to identify influential hubs, which can be targeted to disrupt bacterial metabolism. An important aspect of tuberculosis is the emergence of drug resistance. A network analysis of potential information pathways in the cell helps to identify important proteins as co-targets, targeting which could counter the emergence of resistance. We integrate analyses of metabolism, protein--protein interactions and protein structures to develop a generic drug target identification pipeline, for identifying most suitable drug targets. Finally, we model the interplay between the pathogen and the human immune system, using Boolean networks, to elucidate critical factors influencing the outcome of infection. The strategies described can be applied to understand various pathogens and can impact many drug discovery programmes.

H παρούσα διατριβή εκπονήθηκε στο Εργαστήριο Αναγνώρισης Προτύπων, του Τμήματος Μηχανικών Ηλεκτρονικών Υπολογιστών και Πληροφορικής του Πανεπιστημίου Πατρών. Αποτελεί μέρος της ευρύτερης ερευνητικής δραστηριότητας του Εργαστηρίου στον τομέα του σχεδιασμού και της εφαρμογής των τεχνολογιών Υπολογιστικής Νοημοσύνης στην ανάλυση βιολογικών δεδομένων. Η διδακτορική αυτή διατριβή χρηματοδοτήθηκε από το πρόγραμμα Ηράκλειτος ΙΙ. Ο τομέας της πρωτεωμικής είναι ένα σχετικά καινούργιο και γρήγορα αναπτυσσόμενο ερευνητικό πεδίο. Μια από τις μεγαλύτερες προκλήσεις στον τομέα της πρωτεωμικής είναι η αναδόμηση του πλήρους πρωτεϊνικού αλληλεπιδραστικού δικτύου μέσα στα κύτταρα. Εξαιτίας του γεγονότος, ότι οι πρωτεϊνικές αλληλεπιδράσεις παίζουν πολύ σημαντικό ρόλο στις βασικές λειτουργίες ενός κυττάρου, η ανάλυση αυτών των δικτύων μπορεί να αποκαλύψει τον ρόλο αυτών των αλληλεπιδράσεων στις ασθένειες καθώς και τον τρόπο με τον οποίο οι τελευταίες αναπτύσσονται. Παρόλα αυτά, είναι αρκετά δύσκολο να καταγραφούν και να μελετηθούν οι πρωτεϊνικές αλληλεπιδράσεις ενός οργανισμού, καθώς το πρωτέωμα διαφοροποιείται από κύτταρο σε κύτταρο και αλλάζει συνεχώς μέσα από τις βιοχημικές του αλληλεπιδράσεις με το γονιδίωμα και το περιβάλλον. Ένας οργανισμός έχει ριζικά διαφορετική πρωτεϊνική έκφραση στα διάφορα σημεία του σώματός του, σε διαφορετικά στάδια του κύκλου ζωής του και υπό διαφορετικές περιβαλλοντικές συνθήκες. Δημιουργούνται, λοιπόν, δύο πάρα πολύ σημαντικοί τομείς έρευνας, που είναι, πρώτον, η εύρεση των πραγματικών πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων ενός οργανισμού που θα συνθέσουν το πρωτεϊνικό δίκτυο αλληλεπιδράσεων και, δεύτερον, η περαιτέρω ανάλυση του πρωτεϊνικού δικτύου για εξόρυξη πληροφορίας (εύρεση πρωτεϊνικών συμπλεγμάτων, καθορισμός λειτουργίας πρωτεϊνών κτλ). Στην παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή παρουσιάζονται καινοτόμες αλγοριθμικές τεχνικές Υπολογιστικής Νοημοσύνης για την πρόβλεψη πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων, τον υπολογισμό ενός βαθμού εμπιστοσύνης για κάθε προβλεφθείσα αλληλεπίδραση, την πρόβλεψη πρωτεϊνικών συμπλόκων από δίκτυα πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων και την πρόβλεψη της λειτουργίας πρωτεϊνών. Συγκεκριμένα, στο κομμάτι της πρόβλεψης και βαθμολόγησης πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων αναπτύχθηκε μια πληθώρα καινοτόμων τεχνικών ταξινόμησης. Αυτές κυμαίνονται από υβριδικούς συνδυασμούς μετα-ευρετικών μεθόδων και ταξινομητών μηχανικής μάθησης, μέχρι μεθόδους γενετικού προγραμματισμού και υβριδικές μεθοδολογίες ασαφών συστημάτων. Στο κομμάτι της πρόβλεψης πρωτεϊνικών συμπλόκων υλοποιήθηκαν δύο βασικές καινοτόμες μεθοδολογίες μη επιβλεπόμενης μάθησης, οι οποίες θεωρητικά και πειραματικά ξεπερνούν τα μειονεκτήματα των υπαρχόντων αλγορίθμων. Για τις περισσότερες από αυτές τις υλοποιηθείσες μεθοδολογίες υλοποιήθηκαν φιλικές προς τον χρήστη διεπαφές. Οι περισσότερες από αυτές τις μεθοδολογίες μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν και σε άλλους τομείς. Αυτό πραγματοποιήθηκε με μεγάλη επιτυχία σε προβλήματα βιοπληροφορικής όπως η πρόβλεψη microRNA γονιδίων και mRNA στόχων τους και η μοντελοποίηση - πρόβλεψη οικονομικών χρονοσειρών. Πειραματικά, η μελέτη αρχικά επικεντρώθηκε στον οργανισμό της ζύμης (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), έτσι ώστε να αξιολογηθούν οι αλγόριθμοι, που υλοποιήθηκαν και να συγκριθούν με τις υπάρχουσες αλγοριθμικές μεθοδολογίες. Στη συνέχεια, δόθηκε ιδιαίτερη έμφαση στις πρωτεΐνες του ανθρώπινου οργανισμού. Συγκεκριμένα, οι καλύτερες αλγοριθμικές τεχνικές για την ανάλυση δεδομένων πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων εφαρμόστηκαν σε ένα σύνολο δεδομένων που δημιουργήθηκε για τον ανθρώπινο οργανισμό. Αυτό είχε σαν αποτέλεσμα την δημιουργία ενός πλήρους, σταθμισμένου δικτύου πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων για τον άνθρωπο και την εξαγωγή των πρωτεϊνικών συμπλόκων, που υπάρχουν σε αυτό καθώς και τον λειτουργικό χαρακτηρισμό πολλών αχαρακτήριστων πρωτεϊνών. Τα αποτελέσματα της ανάλυσης των δεδομένων πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων για τον άνθρωπο είναι διαθέσιμα μέσω μίας διαδικτυακής βάσης γνώσης HINT-KB (http://hintkb.ceid.upatras.gr), που υλοποιήθηκε στα πλαίσια αυτής της διδακτορικής διατριβής. Σε αυτή την βάση γνώσης ενσωματώνεται, από διάφορες πηγές, ακολουθιακή, δομική και λειτουργική πληροφορία για ένα τεράστιο πλήθος ζευγών πρωτεϊνών του ανθρώπινου οργανισμού. Επίσης, οι χρήστες μπορούν να έχουν προσβαση στις προβλεφθείσες πρωτεϊνικές αλληλεπιδράσεις και στον βαθμό εμπιστοσύνης τους. Τέλος, παρέχονται εργαλεία οπτικοποίησης του δικτύου πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων, αλλά και εργαλεία ανάκτησης των πρωτεϊνικών συμπλόκων που υπάρχουν σε αυτό και της λειτουργίας πρωτεϊνών και συμπλόκων. Το προβλήματα με τα οποία καταπιάνεται η παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή έχουν σημαντικό ερευνητικό ενδιαφέρον, όπως τεκμηριώνεται και από την παρατιθέμενη στη διατριβή εκτενή βιβλιογραφία. Μάλιστα, βασικός στόχος είναι οι παρεχόμενοι αλγόριθμοι και υπολογιστικά εργαλεία να αποτελέσουν ένα οπλοστάσιο στα χέρια των βιοπληροφορικάριων για την επίτευξη της κατανόησης των κυτταρικών λειτουργιών και την χρησιμοποίηση αυτής της γνώσης για γονιδιακή θεραπεία διαφόρων πολύπλοκων πολυπαραγοντικών ασθενειών όπως ο καρκίνος. Τα σημαντικόταρα επιτεύγματα της παρούσας διατριβής μπορούν να συνοψισθούν στα ακόλουθα σημεία: • Παροχή ολοκληρωμένης υπολογιστικής διαδικασίας ανάλυσης δεδομένων πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων • Σχεδιασμός και υλοποίηση ευφυών τεχνικών πρόβλεψης και βαθμολόγησης πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων, που θα παρέχουν αποδοτικά και ερμηνεύσιμα μοντέλα πρόβλεψης. • Σχεδιασμός και υλοποίηση αποδοτικών αλγορίθμων μη επιβλεπόμενης μάθησης για την εξόρυξη πρωτεϊνικών συμπλόκων από δίκτυα πρωτεϊνικών αλληλλεπιδράσεων. • Δημιουργία μιας βάσης γνώσης που θα παρέχει στην επιστημονική κοινότητα όλα τα ευρήματα της ανάλυσης των δεδομένων πρωτεϊνικών αλληλεπιδράσεων για τον ανθρώπινο οργανισμό. / The present dissertation was conducted in the Pattern Recognition Laboratory, of the Department of Computer Engineering and Informatics at the University of Patras. It is a part of the wide research activity of the Pattern Recognition Laboratory in the domain of designing, implementing and applying Computational Intelligence technologies for the analysis of biological data. The present dissertation was co-financed by the research program Hrakleitos II. The proteomics domain is a quite new and fast evolving research domain. One of the great challenges in the domain of proteomics is the reconstruction of the complete protein-protein interaction network within the cells. The analysis of these networks is able to uncover the role of protein-protein interactions in diseases as well as their developmental procedure, as protein-protein interactions play very important roles in the basic cellular functions. However, this is very hard to be accomplished as protein-protein interactions and the whole proteome is differentiated among cells and it constantly changes through the biochemical cellular and environment interactions. An organism has radically different protein expression in different tissues, in different phases of his life and under varying environmental conditions. Two very important domains of research are created. First, the identification of the real protein-protein interactions within an organism which will compose its protein interaction network. Second, the analysis of the protein interaction network to extract knowledge (search for protein complexes, uncovering of proteins functionality e.tc.) In the present dissertation novel algorithmic Computational Intelligent techniques are presented for the prediction of protein-protein interactions, the prediction of a confidence score for each predicted protein-protein interaction, the prediction of protein complexes and the prediction of proteins functionality. In particular, in the task of predicting and scoring protein-protein interactions, a wide range of novel classification techniques was designed and developed. These techniques range from hybrid combinations of meta-heuristic methods and machine learning classifiers, to genetic programming methods and fuzzy systems. For the task of predicting protein complexes, two novel unsupervised methods were designed and developed which theoretically and experimentally surpassed the limitations of existing methodologies. For most of the designed techniques user friendly interfaces were developed to allow their utilizations by other researchers. Moreover, many of the implemented techniques were successfully applied to other research domaines such as the prediction of microRNAs and their targets and the forecastment of financial time series. The experimental procedure, initially focused on the well studied organism of Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to validate the performance of the proposed algorithms and compare them with existing computational methodologies. Then, it focuses on the analysis of protein-protein interaction data from the Human organism. In specific, the best algorithmic techniques, from the ones proposed in the present dissertation, were applied to a human protein-protein interaction dataset. This resulted to the construction of a weighted protein-protein interaction network of high coverage, to the extraction of human protein complexes and to the functional characterization of Human proteins and complexes. The results of the analysis of Human protein-protein interaction data are available in the web knowledge base HINT-KB (http://hintkb.ceid.upatras.gr) which was implemented during this dissertation. In this knowledge base, structural, functional and sequential information from various sources were incorporated for every protein pair. Moreover, HINTKB provide access to the predicted and scored protein-protein interactions and to the predicted protein complexes and their functional characterization. The problems which occupied the present dissertation have very significant research interest as it is proved by the provided wide bibliography. The basic goal is the provided algorithms and tools to contribute in the ultimate goal of systems biology to understand the cellular mechanisms and contribute in the development of genomic therapy of complex diseases such as cancer. The most important achievements of the present dissertation are summarized in the next points: • Providing an integrated computational framework for the analysis of protein-protein interaction data. • Designing and implementing intelligent techniques for predicting and scoring protein-protein interactions in an accurate and interpretable manner. • Designing and implementing effective unsupervised algorithmic techniques for extracting protein complexes and predicting their functionality. • Creating a knowledge base which will provide to the scientific community all the findings of the analysis conducted on the Human protein-protein interaction data.

The mathematical analysis of dynamical systems covers a wide range of challenging problems related to the time evolution, transient and asymptotic behavior, or regulation and control of physical systems. A large part of my work has been motivated by new mathematical questions arising from biological systems, especially signaling and genetic regulatory networks, where the classical methods usually don't directly apply. Problems include parameter estimation, robustness of the system, model reduction, or model assembly from smaller modules, or control of a system towards a desired state. Although many different formalisms and methodologies can be used to study these problems, in the past decade my work has focused on discrete and hybrid modeling frameworks with the goal of developing intuitive, computationally amenable, and mathematically rigorous, methods of analysis. Discrete (and, in particular, Boolean) models involve a high degree of abstraction and provide a qualitative description of the systems' dynamics. Such models are often suitable to represent the known interactions in gene regulatory networks and their advantage is that a large range of theoretical analysis tools are available using, for instance, graph theoretical concepts. Hybrid (piecewise affine) models have discontinuous vector fields but provide a continuous and more quantitative description of the dynamics. These systems can be analytically studied in each region of an appropriate partition of the state space, and the full solution given as a concatenation of the solutions in each region. Here, I will introduce the two formalisms and then, using several examples, illustrate how a combination of different formalisms permits comparison of results, as well as gaining quantitative knowledge and predictive power on a biological system, through the use of complementary mathematical methods.

Recent experimental techniques in biology made possible the acquisition of overwhelming amounts of data concerning complex biological networks, such as neural networks, gene regulation networks and protein-protein interaction networks. These techniques are able to record states of individual components of such networks (neurons, genes, proteins) for a large number of configurations. However, the most biologically relevantinformation lies in their connectivity and in the way their components interact, information that these techniques aren't able to record directly. The aim of this thesis is to study statistical methods for inferring information about the connectivity of complex networks starting from experimental data. The subject is approached from a statistical physics point of view drawing from the arsenal of methods developed in the study of spin glasses. Spin-glasses are prototypes of networks of discrete variables interacting in a complex way and are widely used to model biological networks. After an introduction of the models used and a discussion on the biological motivation of the thesis, all known methods of network inference are introduced and analysed from the point of view of their performance. Then, in the third part of the thesis, a new method is proposed which relies in the remark that the interactions in biology are not necessarily symmetric (i.e. the interaction from node A to node B is not the same as the one from B to A). It is shown that this assumption leads to methods that are both exact and efficient. This means that the interactions can be computed exactly, given a sufficient amount of data, and in a reasonable amount of time. This is an important original contribution since no other method is known to be both exact and efficient.

Cell functions are steered by complex interactions of gene products, like forming a temporary or stable complex, altering gene expression or catalyzing a reaction. Mapping these interactions is the key in understanding biological processes and therefore is the focus of numerous experiments and studies. Small-scale experiments deliver high quality data but lack coverage whereas high-throughput techniques cover thousands of interactions but can be error-prone. Unfortunately all of these approaches can only focus on one type of interaction at the time. This makes experimental mapping of the genome-wide network a cost and time intensive procedure. However, to overcome these problems, different computational approaches have been suggested that integrate multiple data sets and/or different evidence types. This widens the stringent definition of an interaction and introduces a more general term - functional association.  FunCoup is a database for genome-wide functional association networks of Homo sapiens and 16 model organisms. FunCoup distinguishes between five different functional associations: co-membership in a protein complex, physical interaction, participation in the same signaling cascade, participation in the same metabolic process and for prokaryotic species, co-occurrence in the same operon. For each class, FunCoup applies naive Bayesian integration of ten different evidence types of data, to predict novel interactions. It further uses orthologs to transfer interaction evidence between species. This considerably increases coverage, and allows inference of comprehensive networks even for not well studied organisms.  BinoX is a novel method for pathway analysis and determining the relation between gene sets, using functional association networks. Traditionally, pathway annotation has been done using gene overlap only, but these methods only get a small part of the whole picture. Placing the gene sets in context of a network provides additional evidence for pathway analysis, revealing a global picture based on the whole genome. PathwAX is a web server based on the BinoX algorithm. A user can input a gene set and get online network crosstalk based pathway annotation. PathwAX uses the FunCoup networks and 280 pre-defined pathways. Most runs take just a few seconds and the results are summarized in an interactive chart the user can manipulate to gain further insights of the gene set's pathway associations. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Manuscript.</p>

Les gènes et les protéines n’agissent pas de manière isolée dans les cellules, mais interagissent plutôt pour faire leurs fonctions dans les processus biologiques. Ces interactions peuvent être représentées sous forme de grands réseaux dans lesquels les nœuds sont des gènes ou des protéines et les arêtes représentent leurs interactions. Diverses approches basées sur la théorie des graphes ont été développées pour extraire la connaissance fonctionnelle contenue dans ces réseaux. Néanmoins, ces méthodes ont été principalement appliquées à des réseaux individuels, en ignorant la diversité des interactions biologiques. Nous déclarons que ces différents types d’interactions peuvent être représentés sous la forme de réseaux multiplexes, c’est-à-dire des ensembles de réseaux partageant les mêmes nœuds, ce qui permet une description plus précise des systèmes biologiques. Cette thèse est focalisée sur le développement de nouveaux algorithmes étendant aux réseaux multiplexes certaines méthodes populaires de la théorie des graphes en biologie computationnelle, ainsi que sur leur application à l’étude des maladies humaines. Du côté des applications, nous nous concentrons sur les maladies liées au vieillissement prématuré, un groupe de maladies génétiques ressemblant à certains aspects du vieillissement physiologique à un âge précoce. Nous avons appliqué nos algorithmes pour détecter les modules associés à plus de 70 syndromes annotés avec un phénotype lié au vieillissement prématuré. Les résultats ont révélé le paysage des processus moléculaires perturbés dans ces maladies, qui peuvent être mis en parallèle avec les caractéristiques du vieillissement physiologique. / Genes and proteins do not act isolated in cells but rather interact to perform their functions in signaling pathways, molecular complexes, or, more generally, biological processes. These interactions can be represented as large networks in which nodes are genes or proteins and edges represent their interactions. Various graph-theory based approaches have been developed to extract the functional knowledge contained in biological networks. Nevertheless, these methods have been mainly applied to individual networks, ignoring the diversity of biological interactions. We state here that these different types of interactions can be represented as multiplex networks, i.e. collections of networks sharing the same nodes, leading to a more accurate description of biological systems. This thesis focuses on the extension from individual to multiplex networks of some of the state-of-the-art guilt-by-association methods in computational biology, and on their application to the study of human diseases. On the application side, we concentrate on premature aging diseases, a group of rare genetic disorders that resemble some aspects of physiological aging at an early age. In this framework, we applied our algorithms to detect the modules associated to more than 70 disorders annotated with at least one premature aging related phenotype. The results revealed the landscape of perturbed molecular processes in premature aging diseases, which can be paralleled with the hallmarks of physiological aging to help identifying common and specific features.

Des techniques expérimentales récentes ont donné la possibilité d'acquérir un très grand nombre de données concernant des réseaux biologiques complexes, comme des réseaux de neurones, des réseaux de gènes et des réseaux d'interactions de protéines. Ces techniques sont capables d'enregistrer les états des composantes individuelles de ces réseaux (neurones, gènes, protéines) pour un grand nombre de configurations. Cependant, l'information la plus pertinente biologiquement se trouve dans la connectivité de ces systèmes et dans la façon précise avec laquelle ces composantes interagissent, information que les techniques expérimentales ne sont pas au point d'observer directement. Le bût de cette thèse est d'étudier les méthodes statistiques nécessaires pour inférer de l'information sur la connectivité des réseaux complexes en partant des données expérimentales. Ce sujet est traité par le point de vue de la physique statistique, en puisant de l'arsenal de méthodes théoriques qui ont été développées pour l'étude des verres de spins. Les verres de spins sont des exemples de réseaux à variables discrètes qui interagissent de façon complexe et sont souvent utilisés pour modéliser des réseaux biologiques. Après une introduction sur les modèles utilisés ainsi qu'une discussion sur la motivation biologique de cette thèse, toutes les méthodes d'inférence de réseaux connues sont présentées et analysées du point de vue de leur performance. Par la suite, dans la troisième partie de la thèse, un nouvelle méthode est proposée qui s'appuie sur la remarque que les interactions en biologie ne sont pas nécessairement symétriques (c'est-à-dire l'interaction entre les noeuds A et B n'est pas la même dans les deux directions). Il est démontré que cette assomption conduit à des méthodes qui sont capables de prédire les interactions de façon exacte, étant donné un nombre suffisant de données, tout en utilisant un temps de calcul polynomial. Ceci est un résultat original important car toutes les autres méthodes connues sont soit exactes et non-polynomiales soit inexactes et polynomiales. / Recent experimental techniques in biology made possible the acquisition of overwhelming amounts of data concerning complex biological networks, such as neural networks, gene regulation networks and protein-protein interaction networks. These techniques are able to record states of individual components of such networks (neurons, genes, proteins) for a large number of configurations. However, the most biologically relevantinformation lies in their connectivity and in the way their components interact, information that these techniques aren't able to record directly. The aim of this thesis is to study statistical methods for inferring information about the connectivity of complex networks starting from experimental data. The subject is approached from a statistical physics point of view drawing from the arsenal of methods developed in the study of spin glasses. Spin-glasses are prototypes of networks of discrete variables interacting in a complex way and are widely used to model biological networks. After an introduction of the models used and a discussion on the biological motivation of the thesis, all known methods of network inference are introduced and analysed from the point of view of their performance. Then, in the third part of the thesis, a new method is proposed which relies in the remark that the interactions in biology are not necessarily symmetric (i.e. the interaction from node A to node B is not the same as the one from B to A). It is shown that this assumption leads to methods that are both exact and efficient. This means that the interactions can be computed exactly, given a sufficient amount of data, and in a reasonable amount of time. This is an important original contribution since no other method is known to be both exact and efficient.

Mapping of the human genome has been instrumental in understanding diseasescaused by changes in single genes. However, disease mechanisms involvingmultiple genes have proven to be much more elusive. Their complexityemerges from interactions of intracellular molecules and makes them immuneto the traditional reductionist approach. Only by modelling this complexinteraction pattern using networks is it possible to understand the emergentproperties that give rise to diseases.The overarching term used to describe both physical and indirect interactionsinvolved in the same functions is functional association. FunCoup is oneof the most comprehensive networks of functional association. It uses a naïveBayesian approach to integrate high-throughput experimental evidence of intracellularinteractions in humans and multiple model organisms. In the firstupdate, both the coverage and the quality of the interactions, were increasedand a feature for comparing interactions across species was added. The latestupdate involved a complete overhaul of all data sources, including a refinementof the training data and addition of new class and sources of interactionsas well as six new species.Disease-specific changes in genes can be identified using high-throughputgenome-wide studies of patients and healthy individuals. To understand theunderlying mechanisms that produce these changes, they can be mapped tocollections of genes with known functions, such as pathways. BinoX wasdeveloped to map altered genes to pathways using the topology of FunCoup.This approach combined with a new random model for comparison enables BinoXto outperform traditional gene-overlap-based methods and other networkbasedtechniques.Results from high-throughput experiments are challenged by noise and biases,resulting in many false positives. Statistical attempts to correct for thesechallenges have led to a reduction in coverage. Both limitations can be remediedusing prioritisation tools such as MaxLink, which ranks genes using guiltby association in the context of a functional association network. MaxLink’salgorithm was generalised to work with any disease phenotype and its statisticalfoundation was strengthened. MaxLink’s predictions were validatedexperimentally using FRET.The availability of prioritisation tools without an appropriate way to comparethem makes it difficult to select the correct tool for a problem domain.A benchmark to assess performance of prioritisation tools in terms of theirability to generalise to new data was developed. FunCoup was used for prioritisationwhile testing was done using cross-validation of terms derived fromGene Ontology. This resulted in a robust and unbiased benchmark for evaluationof current and future prioritisation tools. Surprisingly, previously superiortools based on global network structure were shown to be inferior to a localnetwork-based tool when performance was analysed on the most relevant partof the output, i.e. the top ranked genes.This thesis demonstrates how a network that models the intricate biologyof the cell can contribute with valuable insights for researchers that study diseaseswith complex genetic origins. The developed tools will help the researchcommunity to understand the underlying causes of such diseases and discovernew treatment targets. The robust way to benchmark such tools will help researchersto select the proper tool for their problem domain. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 5: Manuscript. Paper 6: Manuscript.</p>

Dans ce mémoire, nous présentons l’utilisation de techniques de model-checking pour l’inférence de paramètres de réseaux de régulation génétique (GRN) et l’analyse formelle d’une voie de signalisation. Le coeur du mémoire est décrit dans la première partie, dans laquelle nous proposons une approche pour inférer les paramètres biologiques régissant les dynamiques de modèles discrets de GRN. Les GRN sont encodés sous la forme d’un méta-modèle, appelé GRN paramétré, de telle façon qu’une instance de paramètres définit un modèle discret du GRN initial. Sous réserve que les propriétés biologiques d’intérêt s’expriment sous la forme de formules LTL, les techniques de model-checking LTL sont combinées à celles d’exécution symbolique et de résolution de contraintes afin de sélectionner les modèles satisfaisant ces propriétés. L’enjeu est de contourner l’explosion combinatoire en terme de taille et de nombre de modèles discrets. Nous avons implémenté notre méthode en Java, dans un outil appelé SPuTNIk. La seconde partie décrit une collaboration avec des neuropédiatres, qui ont pour objectif de comprendre l’apparition du phénotype protecteur ou toxique des microglies (un type de macrophage du cerveau) chez les prématurés. Cette partie exploite un autre versant du model-checking, celui du modelchecking statistique, afin d’étudier un type de réseau biologique particulier : la voie de signalisation Wnt/β-caténine, qui permet la transmission d’un signal de l’extérieur à l’intérieur des cellules via une cascade de réactions biochimiques. Nous présentons ici l’apport du model-checker stochastique COSMOS, utilisant la logique stochastique à automate hybride (HASL), un formalisme très expressif nous permettant une analyse formelle sophistiquée des dynamiques de la voie Wnt/β-caténine, modélisée sous la forme d’un processus stochastique à événements discrets. / In this thesis, we present the use of model checking techniques for inference of parameters of Gene Regulatory Networks (GRNs) and formal analysis of a signalling pathway. In the first and main part, we provide an approach to infer biological parameters governing the dynamics of discrete models of GRNs. GRNs are encoded in the form of a meta-model, called Parametric GRN, such that a parameter instance defines a discrete model of the original GRN. Provided that targeted biological properties are expressed in the form of LTL formulas, LTL model-checking techniques are combined with symbolic execution and constraint solving techniques to select discrete models satisfying these properties. The challenge is to prevent combinatorial explosion in terms of size and number of discrete models. Our method is implemented in Java, in a tool called SPuTNIk. The second part describes a work performed in collaboration with child neurologists, who aim to understand the occurrence of toxic or protective phenotype of microglia (a type of macrophage in the brain) in the case of preemies. We use an other type of model-checking, the statistical model-checking, to study a particular type of biological network: the Wnt/β- catenin pathway that transmits an external signal into the cells via a cascade of biochemical reactions. Here we present the benefit of the stochastic model checker COSMOS, using the Hybrid Automata Stochastic Logic (HASL), that is an very expressive formalism allowing a sophisticated formal analysis of the dynamics of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, modelled as a discrete event stochastic process.