Technetium-99m (99mTc) radiopharmaceuticals are widely used for diagnostic imaging of heart, kidney, and liver disease, and cancer. Evolution from perfusion type tracers to targeted agents however has proven difficult. 99mTc labeled antibodies for imaging specific disease biomarkers would be of great interest, however the disparity between the isotopes half-life (6 hours) and the long circulation time of most antibodies (multiple days) has been a significant barrier. Furthermore, the conjugation of bifunctional 99mTc-chelate complexes to small molecules often has a detrimental impact on targeting. The use of bioorthogonal chemistry derived from tetrazines and trans-cyclooctene derivatives, along with pretargeting has the potential to overcome these issues and create a new generation of targeted 99mTc radiopharmaceuticals. Initially, the synthesis of three generations of imidazole based tridentate chelates linked to a tetrazine was completed. These new ligands were labeled with 99mTc under mild conditions (60 °C, 20 min, pH 3.5) with modest to good radiochemical yields ranging from 31 to 83%. Biodistribution studies revealed that compound 14, which contains a polyethylene glycol 5 (PEG5) linker had the best clearance from non-target tissues. Compound 14 was also used successfully in a pretargeting strategy along with a transcyclooctene (TCO) derivative of the bone targeting bisphosphonate, alendronate (ALN). One hour following the administration of TCO-ALN to BALB/c mice, compound 14 was injected intravenously where uptake at sites of high calcium turn over (i.e. the joints) was observed. At 6 hours post injection, for example, uptake reached as high as 20.1 ± 4.91 and 16.1 ± 4.84 %ID/g in the knee and shoulder, respectively. Pretargeted imaging studies were performed subsequently with a TCO-functionalized huA33 antibody in mice bearing SW122 xenografts. The TCO-huA33 antibody was injected 24 hours before the administration of two radiolabeled tetrazines at high and low specific activities. At 6 hours post injection tumour uptake was minimal, with tumour: blood ratios <1 in all cases. Blood clearance studies determined that the tetrazines were being cleared rapidly, with a blood residence half-life of 1.3-2.1 minutes. The hypothesis is that the low concentration of the antibody (owing to its high molecular weight), combined with the rapid clearance of the tetrazine and significant off-target uptake resulted in unfavorable kinetics and low tumor binding. Studies of the clearance pathway of 14 were investigated with clinically approved hepatobiliary transport inhibitors to help understand the mechanism of clearance, which could in turn be used to optimize the pharmacokinetics of the tetrazine ligands. A range of different inhibitors of key clearance pathways were evaluated with limited success. However, co-administration of 14 with ALN resulted in a 75% decrease in gall bladder uptake of 14 (216 ± 75.9 to 33.6 ± 3.93 %ID/g). Pretargeting studies of 14 with TCO-ALN in the presence of excess ALN revealed that ALN did not hinder the uptake of TCO-ALN in the bone, with all organs and tissues having the same uptake with TCO-ALN or TCO-ALN + ALN (knee: 20.1 ± 4.91 and 14.9 ± 2.43 %ID/g, respectively). There was also a concomitant decrease in gall bladder uptake (91.5 ± 17.1 to 28.8 ± 2.63 %ID/g). Further work on improving the distribution of the tetrazine ligands involved investigating the effect of the chelate. The core chelate found in 14 without the tetrazine moiety (compound 11a) was labeled with 99mTc to produce 11b in a 31% radiochemical yield. Biodistribution studies of 11b and 14 at 6 hours post injection demonstrated that the imidazole-based 99mTc-chelate was a major factor in the rapid and significant uptake and retention in the liver and gallbladder. A new triazole based chelate with optimal clearance from Kluba and coworkers was synthesized in 45% yield and successfully labeled with 99mTc (compound 23a). Biodistribution studies were performed where at 6 hours post injection, 23a had five times lower uptake in all non-target organs compared to 11b. The synthesis of a tetrazine derivative of 23a (compound 32) unfortunately demonstrated high hepatobiliary uptake compared to the original triazole chelate (gall bladder: 228 ± 251 and 8.77 ± 0.73 %ID/g, large intestine: 85.5 ± 83.5 and 6.88 ± 0.30 %ID/g, respectively). This particular derivative had a lipophilic linker as a result of the synthetic challenges faced during the preparation of a more hydrophilic triazole-tetrazine derivative. In addition to pretargeting applications, the 99mTc-tetrazine was used as a reagent to create multimodal imaging agents. Nanoscale gas vesicle (GV) ultrasound contrast agents were functionalized with TCO via an amide coupling to lysine residues. TCO-GVs were then radiolabeled by adding compound 6 where the desired product, a new multimodal probe, was obtained in 59% radiochemical yield. SPECT imaging and biodistribution studies in mice were completed where the labeled GV’s showed uptake in the gall bladder (120 ± 29.1 %ID/g), liver (16.8 ± 7.50 %ID/g), lungs (3.26 ± 1.53 %ID/g), small intestines (14.5 ± 5.30 %ID/g), and spleen (5.47 ± 2.71 %ID/g) at 120 min post injection. In addition to radiolabelling, the TCO-GVs were also functionalized with a near IR-tetrazine dye to produce a multimodal ultrasound/photoacoustic (US/PA) imaging agent in a 68% yield. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

To address the paucity of available molecularly targeted photoacoustic imaging probes (PIPs) and to generate meaningful data to support the ongoing effort to refine diagnostic photoacoustic imaging (PAI) applications, the work presented here focuses on the design, synthesis, and evaluation of novel PIPs. To this end, various light-absorbing small molecule dyes, targeting strategies, and disease-targeting molecules were evaluated. First, a near-infrared photoacoustic probe was used to image bone in vivo through active and bioorthogonal pre-targeting strategies by utilizing a coupling between a tetrazine-derived cyanine dye and a trans-cyclooctene-modified bisphosphonate. In vitro hydroxyapatite binding and in vivo bone imaging studies showed significant localization of the agent to the target using both active and pre-targeting strategies. The tetrazine-dye building block was then used to create a first-generation bacteria-targeting PIP, using a trans-cyclooctene-modified Zinc (II)-dipicolylamine (ZnDPA). The PIP demonstrated poor aqueous solubility and overlapping photoacoustic (PA) signal with deoxyhemoglobin. Therefore, a commercially available ZnDPA-derived fluorophore, PSVue794, was then repurposed for use as a PIP. PSVue794 demonstrated the ability to differentiate between bacterial infection, sterile inflammation, and healthy tissue in a mouse model, via PA imaging, which prompted its use in a series of proof-of-concept studies towards the generation of a model of implant infection. The feasibility of detecting the PIP in the presence of a PA signal-emitting metallic implant, which was deemed a significant hurdle due to the intensity of the PA signal of the metal, was verified. Although the work requires some follow-up evaluations to demonstrate the practical use of the model, ZnDPA-based PIPs have remained promising candidates for PAI of bacterial infection. Finally, a novel general-purpose dye was designed to possess properties ideal for in vivo PAI. To evaluate the modifications made, the general-purpose dye was conjugated with ZnDPA, and was tested alongside the non-targeted counterpart and PSVue794. Through the studies conducted, it was evident that the rationale that contributed to the design of the general-purpose dye did lead to highly soluble PIP with promising PA properties, however, the PIP did not demonstrate target-specificity, in vivo. Therefore, investigations using the non-targeted PIP with higher affinity targeting vectors for PA-compatible diseases, such as surgical-site/implant infections and prostate cancer, is warranted. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / The work conducted within this thesis aims to outline the process of developing photoacoustic diagnostic agents for the detection of various diseases, including bone disease and bacterial infection. To this end, various small molecule, near-infrared absorbing dyes, disease-targeting molecules, and assembly methods were selected to generate several diagnostic agents. To demonstrate their utility, the diagnostic agents were each evaluated in a series of studies designed to assess their ability to generate detectable photoacoustic signal, interact specifically with disease-markers, and localize the sites of disease in living systems. Significant attention was placed on comprehensively evaluating the diagnostic agents through the development of methodology and generating a standard procedure for photoacoustic data production and reporting, which was practiced throughout the work.

La radioimmunothérapie (RIT) est une stratégie théranostique associant la spécificité de reconnaissance d’anticorps monoclonaux (AcMs) (ou de formes dérivées) vis-à-vis des antigènes tumoraux et les propriétés des radionucléides (imagerie/thérapie). L’efficacité de la RIT est cependant limitée sur les tumeurs solides à cause de la lente diffusion des AcMs et de leur longue demi-vie plasmatique. Les approches de radioimmunothérapie préciblée (PRIT), qui dissocient l’injection des AcMs de celle des radioligands constituent des alternatives pertinentes envisagées pour diminuer l’hématotoxicité et améliorer l’efficacité thérapeutique de la RIT classique. Nous avons ainsi travaillé sur une stratégie de PRIT utilisant la chimie bioorthogonale par interaction entre un trans-cyclooctène (TCO) et une tétrazine (TZ), à la fois pour l’imagerie et pour la thérapie de la carcinose péritonéale (CP) d’origine colorectale (modèle A431-CEA-Luc/ AcM 35A7). Dans un premier temps nous avons évalué à la fois in vitro et in vivo dans le modèle de CP ainsi que dans un modèle sous-cutané de cancer colorectal (modèle HT29/ AcM Ts29.2) l’effet des modifications apportées aux AcMs. Nous avons ainsi montré que les modifications d’AcMs influencent l’interaction entre les TCO et la TZ, sans pour autant altérer leur immunoréactivité. L’ajout d’espaceurs PEGylés (polyéthylène glycol) entre les AcMs et les TCO induit une diminution significative de l’interaction TCO/TZ. De plus, nous avons montré que les TCO sont sujets à l’isomérisation en cis-cyclooctènes, inactifs vis-à-vis de la TZ, et que la PEGylation aggrave ce phénomène. Ces études ont ainsi montré à la fois que les AcMs-TCO ne contenant pas d’espaceur PEGylé étaient les plus favorables pour le préciblage mais également, qu’il était primordial de contrôler le taux d’isomérisation des TCO avant greffage aux AcMs pour ne pas altérer l’interaction vis-à-vis des TZ. Dans un second temps nous avons effectué avec succès la preuve de concept de l’imagerie SPECT de la CP par préciblage entre l’AcM 35A7-TCO et la TZ-PEG4-DOTA-177Lu (i.e. TZ-1). Un ciblage spécifique des tumeurs péritonéales a ainsi été obtenu, avec un très bon contraste. L’étude de PRIT effectuée avec cette même sonde TZ-1 a cependant échoué à mettre en évidence une amélioration des médianes de survie ou un ralentissement de la croissance tumorale, nous amenant ainsi à reconsidérer la structure de la TZ-1. Trois autres TZ (i.e. TZ-2-4) ont donc été évaluées par la suite, en biodistribution, afin de déterminer la meilleure pour la PRIT de la CP. Ainsi, la TZ-3, qui comporte un espaceur PEGylé plus long que la TZ-1, s’est avérée être la plus favorable dans ce type de stratégie et sera prochainement utilisée pour une nouvelle étude de thérapie. En conclusion, ces travaux de thèse ont permis de démontrer la faisabilité du concept de préciblage par chimie bioorthogonale utilisant l’interaction TCO/TZ pour l’imagerie de tumeurs disséminées dans la cavité péritonéale. Cette stratégie reste néanmoins compliquée à mettre en place du fait de l’instabilité des TCO et des problèmes de réactivité de certaines sondes TZ et nécessite encore de nombreuses optimisations avant de pouvoir envisager une application thérapeutique. / Radioimmunotherapy (RIT) consists to combine the specificity of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), or mAbs derived structures, towards tumor antigens with the imaging/therapy properties of radionuclides, representing thus a theranostic strategy. RIT efficiency in solid tumors is limited due to both mAbs slow diffusion and long blood clearance. Pretargeted radioimmunotherapy (PRIT) appears as an alternative to circumvent hematotoxicity and improve therapeutic efficacy. We have thus worked on PRIT based on bioorthogonal click chemistry relying on the interaction between trans-cyclooctene (TCO) and tetrazine (TZ). Application of this strategy was made for imaging and therapy of peritoneal carcinomatosis (PC) from colorectal origin (A431-CEA-Luc model/ 35A7 mAb). We have first assessed the influence of mAbs modifications, in vitro and in vivo experiments made on both PC model and subcutaneous colorectal cancer (HT29 model/ Ts29.2 mAb). We thus demonstrated that mAbs modifications influence the interaction between TCO and TZ without decreasing their antigen binding capacities. Indeed, addition of PEGylated (polyethylene glycol) linkers between mAbs and TCO induced a significant decrease of TCO/TZ interaction. In addition, we also demonstrated that TCO moieties undergo severe isomerization to cis-cyclooctene (CCO) moieties which are unreactive towards TZ. Addition of PEG linkers also increased the isomerization rate of TCO to CCO. Our results highlighted that a non PEGylated mAb should represent the best structure for PRIT to avoid isomerization and consequently to control the ratio of CCO before mAbs coupling to maximize TCO/TZ interaction. In disseminated PC, we have made for the first time the proof of concept of SPECT imaging between 35A7-TCO and TZ-PEG4-DOTA-177Lu (i.e. TZ-1). We indeed obtained a specific signal corresponding to PC tumors with a very good contrast. However, a PRIT experiment using TZ-1 did not allow observing neither improvement of median survivals nor tumor growth slow down. Those disappointing results led to reconsider the TZ-1 structure and evaluate three new TZ (i.e. TZ-2-4). The TZ-3, bearing a longer PEG linker than TZ-1, appears as the most appropriate for PRIT studies and will soon be considered for a new therapy experiment. In conclusion, we demonstrated the possibility to do pretargeted imaging of peritoneal disseminated tumors using bioorthogonal click chemistry with TCO/TZ interaction. Nevertheless, this strategy is quite complicated to do due to both TCO isomerization and reactivity of radiolabelled TZ probes. Further optimizations will be mandatory before therapy can be transferred to clinic.

L'imagerie de biomolécules, et plus particulièrement des glycanes, au sein d'organismes vivants, représente un incroyable challenge. Cependant, des progrès significatifs ont été réalisés ces dix dernières années grâce au développement de la stratégie du rapporteur chimique bioorthogonal. Cette technique implique, dans un premier temps, l'incorporation d'une fonctionnalité chimique non native (rapporteur) au sein de biomolécules complexes. Ce rapporteur peut ensuite réagir sélectivement avec une sonde moléculaire spécifique permettant ainsi la détection de la biomolécule ciblée. Afin d'imager ces biomolécules en temps réel, les sondes fluorogènes, des réactifs non fluorescents qui deviennent fluorescents après réaction avec le rapporteur chimique, ont été récemment développées. Ces dernières années, la cycloaddition 1,3-dipolaire sans métaux, entre les cylooctynes et les azotures, a été élégamment employée comme réaction bioorthogonale pour l'imagerie de biomolécules au sein d'organismes vivants. Cependant, l'azoture présente certaines limitations, notamment il peut être réduit par les thiols cellulaires. En conséquence, nous avons étudié l'utilisation de 1,3-dipôles plus stables, en tant que nouveaux rapporteurs chimiques bioorthogonaux pour l'imagerie de biomolécules par fluorescence. De plus, nous avons aussi développé de nouvelles sondes fluorogènes bioorthogonales ayant de bonnes propriétés de fluorescence, telles que de hautes valeurs de rendement quantique et des longueurs d'ondes d'émission déplacées dans le rouge, pour une potentielle application chez l'animal. / Imaging biomolecules, such as glycans, in living systems remains a formidable chemical challenge. However, significant progress has been made over the past ten years, with the ground-breaking development of the bioorthogonal chemical reporter strategy. In this context, complex biomolecules are fitted with a non-native chemical functionality (reporter) that can react selectively with a complementary bioorthogonal probe for detection. In order to image these biomolecules in real time, fluorogenic probes, non fluorescent reagents that produce highly fluorescent products, have recently been developed. This last decade, the metal-free 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between cyclooctynes and azides have been elegantly employed for biomolecules imaging in living systems. However, azides suffer from limitations such as their reduction by endogenous cellular thiols. Consequently, we have investigated the use of more stable 1,3-dipoles as new chemical reporters for fluorescent biomolecule imaging. In addition, we also developed novel bioorthogonal fluorogenic probes with improved fluorescence properties such as high quantum yields and red-shifted fluorescence emission for potential applications in living animals.

Le développement de réactions chimiques compatibles avec les milieux biologiques est un défi scientifique de taille. Les outils dont actuellement disponibles pour le marquage spécifique d’entités biologiques se sont multipliés pendant cette dernière décennie. Parmi les réactions vedettes du domaine, on trouve les réactions de Diels-Alder entre alcènes tendus et tétrazines ou encore les cycloadditions entre les cycloalcynes et les azotures (SPAAC). En revanche, les réactions de clivage bioorthogonal ont retenu une attention plus faible de la part de la communauté scientifique. Récemment notre groupe a identifié une réaction bioorthogonale entre une iminosydnone et un cycloalcyne permettant d’effectuer simultanément le clivage d’un composé et la ligation de deux entités. Ces travaux de thèse ont été entièrement dirigés vers cette nouvelle réactivité.En premier lieu, nous avons étudié la synthèse et la fonctionnalisation du partenaire iminosydnone dans le but d’obtenir une librairie de composés pour l’étude de la cinétique de la réaction de click & release avec les cycloalcynes. Dans un second temps, nous avons utilisé les outils synthétiques développés pour concevoir des sondes iminosydnones à double exaltation de fluorescence. Cela a marqué l’entrée de ces composés dans le contexte de la chimie bioorthogonale puisque la sonde la plus prometteuse a été utilisée sur des cellules vivantes.Enfin, la capacité des iminosydnones à être clivées par les cycloalcynes a été exploitée sous la forme d’espaceurs clivables dans deux applications. Nous avons tout d’abord conçu des outils pour le target-fishing. Les sondes obtenues ont permis l’immobilisation de protéines sur un support solide. La libération du support des protéines a pu être effectuée de manière quantitative tout en leur apposant une étiquette fluorescente. Le second objet exploitant les propriétés d’espaceurs clivables des iminosydnones est un ADC. Celui en développement dans cette thèse est destiné à traiter les infections bactériennes, cible atteignable uniquement en employant un espaceur clivable par un agent exogène. / The development of chemical reactions compatible with the biological medium is a major challenge. The availability of chemical tools for the specific labeling of biological entities increased dramatically during the last decade. The Diels-Alder reactions between tetrazines and strained alkenes or the Strained Promoted Azide Alkyne Cycloaddition (SPAAC) are among the most popular reactions for bioorthogonal ligations. On the other hand, moderate attention was given to bioorthogonal cleavage reactions. Recently our group identified a new bioorthogonal reaction between an iminosydnone and a cycloalkyne, enabling a cleavage and the ligation of two partners at the same time.The first aim of this PhD thesis was to study the synthesis and functionalisation of the iminosydnone partner. With the large library of compounds in our hands, we could study the kinetic properties of the click & release reaction.Next, using this transformation, we synthesized double fluorogenic iminosydnone probes. The most promising probe was then used on living cells, underlining the bioorthogonality of the reaction.Finally, we took advantage of the iminosydnone properties to use them as cleavable linkers in two applications. The first field we explored was target-fishing. The tools we developped allowed protein immobilization on a solid support. The quantitative release from the support of labeled proteins was achieved using the click & release reaction. The second object using iminosydnones as cleavable linkers we considered was an ADC. The one developped in this PhD thesis is aimed at bacteria. For treatment with ADCs, this target can only be reached using a linker cleavable with an external agent.

Ce travail a consisté en la synthèse d’outils chimiques et au développement de leurs applications biologiques. Dans un premier temps, des sondes pour l’étude de la Topoisomérase IIA humaine ont été synthétisées. Ces sondes ont alors été testées sur lysat cellulaire pour la capture des protéines présentant une affinité pour ces médicaments. Dans un second temps, un nouveau lien clivable en conditions non dénaturantes pour des applications en protéomique chimique a été developpé. Ainsi, après optimisation de la structure, il a été intégré au sein d’une sonde d’affinité pour évaluer sa capacité de capture et libération de la PARP 1. Enfin, la réaction de click entre un azoture et un cyclooctyne a été appliquée à l’élimination d’une drogue circulante dans le sang.Après l’étude cinétique de la réaction, l’activité biologique et la pharmacocinétique des différents composés ont été évaluées pour optimiser la réaction de click in vivo. / The main goal of this work was to synthesize chemical tools and to developp their biological applications. In the first part, probes for the study of Topoisomerase II via chemical proteomic were synthesized. They were then used for pulldown experiments on cell lysats. In a second part, a new cleavable linker in non denaturing conditions was developped for chemical proteomic applications. After optimisation of the structure, it was incorporated in an affinity probe and tested for the pulldown of PARP 1. Finally, a click chemistry reaction, the SPAAC, was used to provok the elimination of a circulating drug. After the study of the kinetic of the reaction, the biological activity and the pharmacokinetic of the different compounds were evaluated to optimise the click reaction in vivo.

Analogues aux cyclotrivératrilènes et aux calix[n]arènes, les pillar[n]arènes sont composés de n unités hydroquinoliques et reliés entre elles par un pont méthylénique en position para. Ces macrocycles ont été utilisés en tant que supports fonctionnalisables afin de préparer divers nanomatériaux. Dans ce contexte, la modification chimique du pont méthylénique a été réalisée sur le pillar[5]arène afin d’obtenir un nouveau site de fonctionnalisation, à ce jour jamais exploité. L’oxydation de cette position a permis dans un premier temps de réaliser une extension de cycle par une réaction de Colvin, afin d’obtenir un macrocycle portant une triple liaison tendue. Cette particularité a permis la réalisation de cycloaddition 1,3-dipolaire de Huisgen ou chimie click sans utilisation de cuivre(I), mais également l’obtention de produits de cycloadditions [2+2] par voie thermique normalement interdites. L’introduction d’un fullerène C60 sur ce pont méthylénique a également été réalisée sans déformation de la cavité. C’est pourquoi dans un deuxième temps des [2]rotaxanes photoactifs ont pu être élaborés à partir de ce fulléropillar[5]arène. Dans un dernier temps, une nouvelle méthode de préparation des [2]rotaxanes a été développée. Par échange de bouchons activés, divers [2]rotaxanes ont pu être synthétisés, sans être limités par la nature des bouchons souhaités. A partir de cette méthode de préparation, des cristaux liquides ont pu être obtenus en substituant ces bouchons activés par des bouchons portants des groupements post-fonctionnalisables, puis en greffant des groupements cyanobiphényles. / Analogues of cyclotriveratrylenes and calix[n]arenes, pillar[n]arenes are composed of 1,4-disubstituted hydroquinone subunits linked by methylene bridges in their para positions. This macrocyclic core has been used as a compact scaffold for the preparation of nanomaterials. In this context, the chemical modification of the methylene bridge has been achieved to further functionalize the core in a way never explored so far. Firstly, oxidation of this position followed by Colvin reaction generated a strained triple bond in the macrocyclic scaffold. This particularity allowed the introduction of functional groups under copper free Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions as well as by thermal [2+2] cycloadditions normally prohibited. Insertion of [60]fullerene on the methylene bridge has been also carried out. In a second time, photoactive [2]rotaxanes have been obtained from this fulleropillar[5]arene. Finally, a new methodology for the preparation of [2]rotaxanes has been developed. By exchange of activated stoppers, various [2]rotaxanes were thus obtained and this method is not limited by the nature of the stopper. This methodology has been used to prepare new liquid crystalline rotaxane derivatives by introduction of clickable stoppers followed by the grafting of dendritic mesogenic subunits.

Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules within a cell and are involved in all biochemical cellular processes ultimately determining cellular function. Therefore, to develop a complete understanding of cellular processes, obtaining knowledge about protein function and interaction at a molecular level is critical. Consequently, the investigation of proteins in their native environment or in partially purified mixtures is a major endeavour in modern life sciences. Due to their high chemical similarity, the inherent problem of studying proteins in complex mixtures is to specifically differentiate one protein of interest from the bulk of other proteins. Site-specific protein functionalisation strategies have become an indispensable tool in biochemical- and cell biology studies. This thesis presents the development of a new enzymatic site-specific protein functionalisation strategy that is based on the reversible covalent phosphocholination of short amino acid sequences in intact proteins. A synthetic strategy has been established that allows access to functionalised CDP-choline derivatives carrying fluorescent reporter groups, affinity tags or bioorthogonal handles. These CDP-choline derivatives serve as co-substrates for the bacterial phosphocholinating enzyme AnkX from Legionella pneumophila, which transfers a phosphocholine moiety to the switch II region of its native target protein Rab1b during infection. We identified the octapeptide sequence TITSSYYR as the minimum recognition sequence required to direct the AnkX catalysed phosphocholination and demonstrated the functionalisation of proteins of interest carrying this recognition tag at the N- or C-terminus as well as in internal loop regions. Moreover, this covalent modification can be hydrolytically reversed by the action of the Legionella enzyme Lem3, which makes the labeling strategy the first example of a covalent and reversible approach that is fully orthogonal to current existing methodologies. Thus, the here presented protein functionalisation approach holds the potential to increase the scope of possible labeling strategies in complex biological systems. In addition to the labeling of tagged target proteins, a CDP-choline derivative equipped with a biotin affinity-tag was synthesised and used in pull-down experiments to investigate the substrate scope of AnkX and to elucidate the role of protein phosphocholination during Legionella pneumophila infection. / Proteiner utgör huvudbeståndsdelen av alla biomolekyler i en cell. Dessa är involverade i alla cellulära processer som bestämmer cellens egenskaper. För att förstå de cellulära processerna är det nödvändigt att förstå proteinernas funktion på molekylär nivå. Att studera proteiner i deras naturliga omgivning, det vill säga inuti en cell eller i ett cellextrakt, är en stor utmaning i dagens livsvetenskaper. Eftersom proteiner är kemiskt lika varandra så är det svårt att skilja ett från tusentals andra. Att specifikt märka proteiner för att skilja ut dem från bakgrunden har blivit ett viktigt arbetssätt i modern biokemi och cellbiologi. Avhandlingen beskriver utvecklandet av en ny metod för reversibel och kovalent enzymatisk märkning baserat på fosfokolinering/defosfokolinering av en kort aminosyrasekvens i intakta proteiner. En syntesmetod för att framställa onaturliga CDP-kolinderivat har etablerats vilket tillåter oss att framställa CDP-kolin som bär en funktionalitet, vilket kan vara ett färgämne eller en affinitetstagg. Dessa onaturliga CDP-kolinderivat accepteras som co-substrat av enzymet AnkX från Legionella pneumophila vilket transfererar den funktionaliserade delen av CDP-kolinderivatet till en kort aminosyrasekvens baserad på AnkX’s naturliga substrat vid infektion, det lilla GTPaset Rab1. Under avhandlingsarbetets gång identifierades den kortaste aminosyrasekvensen som känns igen av AnkX, endast de åtta aminosyrorna TITSSYYR är nödvändiga för igenkänning av AnkX. Dessa åtta aminosyror kan genetiskt infogas i början, slutet eller mitt i ett protein för igenkänning och funktionalisering via AnkX och våra syntetiska CDP-kolinderivat. Vid Legionellainfektion i eukaryota celler klyvs fosfokolineringen efter en viss tid, eftersom Legionella pneumophila producerar ett fosfodiesteras, Lem3, som tar bort de fosfokolineringar som AnkX har installerat när de inte längre behövs. Vi har använt Lem3 för att ta bort märkning i sekvensen TITSS(PC)YYR, vilket gör vår strategi helt reversibel. Vi har kunnat demonstrera att AnkX-Lem3 systemet accepterar ett brett spektrum av CDP-kolinderivat, vilket gör metoden till den första av sitt slag, eftersom den är fullt reversibel. Vi har vidare undersökt vilka proteiner AnkX reagerar med inuti celler, vi använde oss av ett CDP-kolinderivat funktionaliserat med biotin, vilket har tillåtit oss att fiska ut alla de proteiner som fosfokolineras av AnkX. Förutom de små GTPaserna i Rab-familjen så identifierade vi även IMPDH2, ett enzym som reglerar det hastighetsbestämmande steget i syntesen av guanosin-nukleotider. Detta är mycket intressant, eftersom det leder till frågan ifall Legionella pneumophila manipulerar sin värdcell genom att förändra mängden GTP i förhållande till ATP.

Posttranslationale Modifikationen sind chemische Veränderungen, die ein Protein nach der Translation durchläuft. Sie sind wichtig für die Regulierung der Funktion, Struktur und Interaktion von Proteinen. Die Einführung von Modifikationen in Biomoleküle ist zudem ein Hilfsmittel in der Chemischen Biologie, um neue Informationen über ihr Verhalten zu erlangen und ihre Aktivität zu verändern. Die Fehlregulierung von posttranslationalen Modifikationen steht häufig in direkter Verbindung zum Ausbruch von Krankheiten. Ein Beispiel ist das Tau Protein welches eine Schlüsselrolle in der Alzheimer Erkrankung hat. Im Laufe der Krankheit wird Tau hyperphosphoryliert, was zu einem Funktionsverlust des Proteins und zur Bildung von nicht-löslichen Aggregaten führt. Die Mechanismen hinter dieser Fehlregulierung zu eluieren gehört zu einer der großen Herausforderungen der Alzheimerforschung. Diese Doktorarbeit hat sich mit der Entwicklung einer neuen semi-synthetischen Ligationsstrategie beschäftigt, die es ermöglichen soll die Rolle einzelner Phosphorylierungen in der Prolin-reichen Region des Tau Proteins zu untersuchen. Hierfür wurden geeignete Ligationsstellen identifiziert, Ligationsmöglichkeiten geprüft und die Synthese der einzelnen Fragmente optimiert. Desweiteren wurde in dieser Dissertation eine neuartige Anwendung der Staudinger-Phosphonit Ligation entwickelt, die es ermöglicht mit Boran-geschützten P(III) Verbindungen azidhaltige Moleküle zu lichtspaltbaren Phosphonamidaten zu modifizieren. Die P(III) Bausteine beinhalteten dabei nicht nur zwei lichtspaltbare 2-Nitrobenzyl-Substituenten, sondern erlauben zudem über eine Alkingruppe eine vielfältige Funktionalisierung. Die Bestrahlung durch UV Licht induziert die Spaltung der P-N Bindung der Phosphonamidate und setzte das Ursprungsmolekül mit einer zusätzlichen Aminfunktion frei. Dahingehend wurden erste Schritte unternommen, damit die Lichtspaltung keine Modifikation mehr am Ursprungsmolekül hinterlässt. / Post-translational modifications are essential in the regulation of the function, folding and interaction of proteins. Similarly, the modification of biomolecules is a main tool in chemical biology to gain new insights into their molecular mechanisms and to alter and fine-tune their activity. The dysregulation of post-translational modifications is often associated with disease. An example are the abnormally hyperphosphorylated tau proteins that are the main component of neurofibrillary tangles, one of the pathological hallmarks of the neurodegenerative disease Alzheimer‘s disease. The origin of these hyperphosphorylations, which render a soluble and mostly unstructured protein into insoluble aggregates, is a key question in Alzheimer research. First steps towards a tau semi-synthesis that allow for the site-specific introduction of phosphorylations in the proline-rich domain were taken by identifying suitable ligation sites, finding the ideal sequential ligation strategy, providing reliable protein expression protocols and optimizing the synthesis of the synthetic peptides equipped with phosphorylated residues. Furthermore, this thesis explored the use of the Staudinger-phosphonite reaction in the synthesis of photo-cleavable phosphonamidates to modify biomolecules in a reversible manner. This conjugation method allowed for the chemoselective modification of an azido-containing target molecule with a borane-protected P(III) reagent that was equipped with photo-cleavable 2-nitrobenzyl substituents and one alkyne for functionalization. UV irradiation induced the phosphonamidate P-N bond cleavage and resulted in the release of the target molecule with an additional amine functionality. In this regard, first steps were undertaken to develop a traceless variant of this cleavage. The application of the photo-cleavable phosphonamidates was demonstrated in streptavidin-mediated immobilization assays, which is just one example for the use of this valuable methodology.