It is generally acknowledged that a variety of problems affecting aesthetics, health, and corrosivity of potable water can arise during installation of building plumbing systems. These include 'blue water', microbial infestation, and rapid loss of disinfectant residual, among other things. Frequently cited causes of the problems include metallic fines left in the plumbing lines from deburring, cutting and product fabrication; solder flux residuals (water soluble and petroleum based flux); and solvents for CPVC. Mechanistically, some materials such as flux contain high chloride, high ammonia and cause low pH, which can increase the corrosivity of water held in the lines. Indirect effects are also suspected to be important. For example, ammonia from flux and organic carbon from flux or PVC solvents can spur microbial growth, which in turn can reduce pH or otherwise increase corrosivity. Recent work has also demonstrated that problems with lead leaching to water from brass in modern plumbing can actually be worse in PVC/plastic than in copper systems, if certain types of microbes such as nitrifiers proliferate and drop pH. Some of the problems initiated by construction practices can persist indefinitely, causing higher levels of lead and copper in water, or longer term, contributing to failures of the plumbing system. Blue water from high copper concentrations is a confounding problem that continues to arise in some locales of the United States. One public elementary school in Miami Dade County is experiencing blue water issues as manifested by blue ice cubes and sink staining. In addition to the aesthetic problems, copper levels are above the EPA's Copper Action Level of 1.3 ppm. Bottled water has been substituted for tap water consumption, which has created a financial burden. The pH of the school's water ranges from 7.15 - 7.5 and the school itself is located 1 ½ miles off the main distribution line resulting in a very low chlorine residual of between 0.06 mg/L Cl2 and 0.18 mg/L Cl2. On site water was shipped to Virginia Tech from Miami to be used in this study. Preliminary testing showed that an increase in the pH of the water would decrease copper leaching. Several pH's were tested which revealed that increasing the pH of the water to 8.5 would drop copper below 1.3 mg/L. When these recommendations were implemented at the school, the high alkalinity and calcium rich water caused calcite scales to form which clogged the chemical feed nozzles. Further bench scale testing indicated that adding 2 mg/L orthophosphate corrosion inhibitor would effectively decrease copper to a level that would comply with the EPA's Copper Action Limit. Orthophosphate corrosion inhibitors are used by utilities to limit lead and copper corrosion from consumer's plumbing. An evaluation comparing the effects of both 100% orthophosphate inhibitor and orthophosphate/polyphosphate inhibitor blends was performed to study the effects they have on galvanic corrosion, metallic corrosion, microbial growth and the decay of chloramine disinfectant. On site water was sent to Virginia Tech from UNC for use in this bench scale study. The results from this study indicated that 100% orthophosphate inhibitor was the most effective corrosion inhibitor at decreasing metallic corrosion. It has long been known that microbial activity can have significant effects on water quality. This study evaluated nitrifying and heterotrophic bacterial growth in water systems containing copper pipes, a common plumbing product, and flux which is used in soldering copper pipes together in new construction. There are several types of commercially available fluxes which are often used when soldering new pipes together. Flux ingredients vary and can include extremely high concentrations of ammonia, zinc, chloride, tin, copper and TOC. Flux containing high amounts of ammonia can be detrimental to water quality because it can accelerate the occurrence of nitrification, thus creating a cascading set of problems including, but not limited to, pH decrease and copper corrosion. The results from this case study indicated that flushing a pipe system can effectively decrease the high concentrations of flux present in a new construction system; however, high levels of ammonia from flux can create an environment in which nitrifiers may proliferate within the system. Many water utilities in the United States are switching disinfection type from chlorine to chloramine due to the increased stability, longer residual time, and overall safety benefits of chloramine. Although chloramines have been found to be a desirable means for disinfection, chloramine decay is an issue of great concern because if the chloramine residual decays, it can leave a water system unprotected against microbial infestation. A preliminary examination of this issue was performed in a laboratory setting to evaluate the many components that effect the stability of chloramine decay, including alkalinity, phosphate, temperature, and various pipe materials. The results from this experiment revealed that temperature increase, pH increase, and aged tygon tubing all accelerated the rate of chloramine decay. / Master of Science

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Rapidly increasing global population is adding more pressure to the agricultural sector to produce more food to meet growing demands. However the sector is already faced with a challenge to reduce freshwater utilisation as this sector is currently using approximately 70% of global water freshwater resources. In South Africa, the agriculture sector utilizes approximately 62% of freshwater resources and contributes directly about5% to the Gross Domestic Product. South Africa is a water scarce country receiving less than 500mm/year of precipitation in most parts of the country, and consequently approximately 90% of the crops are grown under irrigation. Studies have evaluated irrigation practices and crop water use in the country. However information is lacking on the full impact of South African horticultural products on freshwater resources. The water footprint concept can be used to indicate the total and source (blue/green) of water used to produce the crops. Information about water footprint (WF) can be used for identifying opportunities to reduce the water consumption associated with production of vegetables and fruits at the field to farm- gate levels, including the more effective use of rainfall (green water) as opposed to water abstracted from rivers and groundwater (Blue water). It can also be used to understand water related risks associated with the production of crops and facilitate water allocation and management at catchment/water management scale. While the potential value of water footprint information is well recognized there is still inadequate knowledge on how best to determine the water footprints of various crops within a local context. The aim of this study was to determine the water footprint and the crop water productivity of navel oranges, pink lady apples and potatoes produced with the Olifant/Doorn water management area in South Africa.The water footprint of the navel oranges, pink lady apples and potatoes assessed following the water footprint network method was 125 litres/ kg, 108 litres/kg and 65 litres/ kg respectively. The study concluded that water footprint studies should be carried out on the whole catchment instead of one farm in order to assess the sustainability of the process.

無 / Since 1980, due to the reform and opening door policies, the economy has developed rapidly and the demand for energy has greatly increased in China. Nowadays China needs to continue economic growth to last the survival of CCP regime. Therefore economic growth is the core of China. Since Chinese economic growth depends on its energy supplies. To sustain economic growth, China not only tries to acquire offshore oil deposits, but also must rely upon oversea oil. China has become heavily reliant on foreign oil supplies and also becomes the highly competitive country in oil resource on the world. The majority of China’s oil import is through sea transportation. This over-reliance on sea lanes of communication (SLOC) causes China to fall into face great risks. Beijing feels vulnerable in its Oil transporting lanes and therefore attempts to maintain the stability of its imported oil supplies by securing SLOC to sustain its economic growth. Under these circumstances, the development of the PLA Navy thus becomes a key factor of Chinese prosperity. Beijing becomes aware that a strong navy could protect its oil transporting lanes. However, China does not have a strong navy to acquire its oil transporting lanes. However, China does not have a strong navy to acquire its oil transporting lanes and offshore oil deposits. For this reason, the development of PLA Navy is a natural trend for Chinese expanding national interests. China wants to defend its SLOC far away from its coast to sustain oil supplies stability so that conducts its naval” far sea defense” policy to build a blue-water navy.

ICA vill utveckla sitt miljöarbete i vattenfrågor. Denna rapport syftar till att öka medvetenheten hos ICA om verksamhetens miljöpåverkan genom att analysera vattenfotavtrycket – vanligen kallat Water Footprint – för ett livsmedel. Vattenfotavtryck är ett verktyg inom miljösystemanalys som används för att kartlägga sambandet mellan produktion och konsumtion av produkter och vattenanvändning. Studien visade att vattenfotavtrycken är ungefär 14 500 liter/kg och 16 500 liter/kg för svensk respektive irländsk nötfärs. Ursprunget till fodret samt vilka sorters vatten som används visade sig vara avgörande för vilka konsekvenser vattenfotavtryck ger upphov till. Utvärdering av de negativa konsekvenserna är en genomgående svårighet med vattenfotavtryck, en lösning kan vara att relatera vattenfotavtryck till den lokala vattenstressen samt hushållens vattenkonsumtion. / ICA is one of the leading companies in retail trade in northern Europe and is established in Sweden, Norway and the Baltic countries. ICA is interested in developing the business environmental management by taking into account water-related issues. The purpose of this study is to illuminate the link between company activities of ICA and water use, by applying the tool of water footprint. It is an environmental systems analysis tool that was developed by Professor Arjen Y. Hoekstra at University of Twente and the Water Footprint Network and it is mainly used to calculate the consumption of fresh water that is linked to the consumption of a product. The water footprint concept covers three different types of water; blue, green and grey water, where the green water is rain water, blue water is fresh water and groundwater, and grey water is a theoretical volume of water consumed as a consequence of emission of pollutants. In this study, the blue and green water footprint of Swedish and Irish minced beef has been analyzed. The results showed that the total water footprint of Swedish minced beef is about 14 500 liters per kg, of which about 14 200 liters is green water and 200 liters is blue water. About 98% of the water footprint is domestic since the majority of feed materials origins from Sweden. The total water footprint of Irish minced beef is about 16 500 liters per kg, of which about 15 000 liters is green water and 1 500 liters is blue water. Approximately 21 % of the total water footprint is external due to imports of water intense feed materials. Assessing the environmental and social impacts of the water footprint showed to be difficult because they are multidimensional. As an example, the consequences of a relatively small water footprint in countries with extremely scarce water may be severe, while a much larger water footprint in countries such as Sweden has a relatively small impact. In order to identify water footprints with the potential of causing major environmental and social impacts, data on regional water stress and water availability was used. For example, total household water consumption in water scarce Pakistan is about 58 liters per person and day, roughly 10 times lower compared to the U.S. This water is almost equivalent to the water footprint (52 liters per kg) in Pakistan caused by the production of Irish minced beef. The analysis section also showed that there are substantial difficulties in comparing water footprints of foods in order to identify products with minimum environmental impact. This has two main reasons: First, green water, i.e. evapotranspiration, is a part of the natural cycle of water which varies regionally. Secondly, foods are not always comparable, because different foods provide different nutrients. One solution would be to compare foods on the basis of a common denominator, e.g. animal based foods could be compared on the basis of protein content.

La gestion intégrée de la ressource en eau implique de distinguer les parcours de l’eau qui sont accessibles aux sociétés de ceux qui ne le sont pas. Les cheminements de l’eau sont nombreux et fortement variables d’un lieu à l’autre. Il est possible de simplifier cette question en s’attardant plutôt aux deux destinations de l’eau. L’eau bleue forme les réserves et les flux dans l’hydrosystème : cours d’eau, nappes et écoulements souterrains. L’eau verte est le flux invisible de vapeur d’eau qui rejoint l’atmosphère. Elle inclut l’eau consommée par les plantes et l’eau dans les sols. Or, un grand nombre d’études ne portent que sur un seul type d’eau bleue, en ne s’intéressant généralement qu’au devenir des débits ou, plus rarement, à la recharge des nappes. Le portrait global est alors manquant. Dans un même temps, les changements climatiques viennent impacter ce cheminement de l’eau en faisant varier de manière distincte les différents composants de cycle hydrologique. L’étude réalisée ici utilise l’outil de modélisation SWAT afin de réaliser le suivi de toutes les composantes du cycle hydrologique et de quantifier l’impact des changements climatiques sur l’hydrosystème du bassin versant de la Garonne. Une première partie du travail a permis d’affiner la mise en place du modèle pour répondre au mieux à la problématique posée. Un soin particulier a été apporté à l’utilisation de données météorologiques sur grille (SAFRAN) ainsi qu’à la prise en compte de la neige sur les reliefs. Le calage des paramètres du modèle a été testé dans un contexte differential split sampling, en calant puis validant sur des années contrastées en terme climatique afin d’appréhender la robustesse de la simulation dans un contexte de changements climatiques. Cette étape a permis une amélioration substantielle des performances sur la période de calage (2000-2010) ainsi que la mise en évidence de la stabilité du modèle face aux changements climatiques. Par suite, des simulations sur une période d’un siècle (1960-2050) ont été produites puis analysées en deux phases : i) La période passée (1960-2000), basée sur les observations climatiques, a servi de période de validation à long terme du modèle sur la simulation des débits, avec de très bonnes performances. L’analyse des différents composants hydrologiques met en évidence un impact fort sur les flux et stocks d’eau verte, avec une diminution de la teneur en eau des sols et une augmentation importante de l’évapotranspiration. Les composantes de l’eau bleue sont principalement perturbées au niveau du stock de neige et des débits qui présentent tous les deux une baisse substantielle. ii) Des projections hydrologiques ont été réalisées (2010-2050) en sélectionnant une gamme de scénarios et de modèles climatiques issus d’une mise à l’échelle dynamique. L’analyse de simulation vient en bonne part confirmer les conclusions tirées de la période passée : un impact important sur l’eau verte, avec toujours une baisse de la teneur en eau des sols et une augmentation de l’évapotranspiration potentielle. Les simulations montrent que la teneur en eau des sols pendant la période estivale est telle qu’elle en vient à réduire les flux d’évapotranspiration réelle, mettant en évidence le possible déficit futur des stocks d’eau verte. En outre, si l’analyse des composantes de l’eau bleue montre toujours une diminution significative du stock de neige, les débits semblent cette fois en hausse pendant l’automne et l’hiver. Ces résultats sont un signe de l’«accélération» des composantes d’eau bleue de surface, probablement en relation avec l’augmentation des évènements extrêmes de précipitation. Ce travail a permis de réaliser une analyse des variations de la plupart des composantes du cycle hydrologique à l’échelle d’un bassin versant, confirmant l’importance de prendre en compte toutes ces composantes pour évaluer l’impact des changements climatiques et plus largement des changements environnementaux sur la ressource en eau. / Integrated water resource management requires distinction between water paths that are directly available for society and those which are not. Water pathways, from precipitation to the oceans or the atmosphere, are highly variable from one place to another. The complexity of water pathways can be simplified by focusing on two main categories of water resources: blue water, which is the stock and flow moving into the hydrosystem that is directly available (e.g. rivers, lakes, aquifers and groundwater flow), and green water, which is the invisible flow of water vapor leaving the hydrosphere to the atmosphere. The latter includes the water used by forests, grasslands, rain fed crops, and the water in soils. However, many hydrological studies focus only on blue water, particularly the discharge or more rarely the ground water recharge, ignoring all green water components, therefore missing the overall picture. At the same time, climate change highlighted in recent years have been found to impact water pathway distributions by affecting different components of the hydrological cycle at the watershed scale. The study presented here exploits the SWAT hydrological model to assess the variation of different components of a hydrosystem facing climate change. The study area is the watershed of the Garonne River, where data is available. The first part of this work focused on refining the implementation of the model in order to better tackle the problem at hand. Particular attention has been paid to the use of gridded weather data (SAFRAN product) as well as to the simulation of snow present in the mountainous portion of the watershed. Calibration of the model parameters was tested through a differential split sampling method, based on calibration and validation using climatically contrasted periods, in order to test the robustness of the model. These steps led to a substantial improvement in the simulations performance over the calibration period (2000-2010) and demonstrated the robustness of the model within a climate change context. The improved SWAT model was next used to produce simulations over a hundred-year period (1960-2050), an analysis carried out in two steps: First, the past period (1960-2000) simulation, based on observed climatic data, was used to validate discharge simulations for which very good performance was obtained. Analysis of the different components of the hydrological cycle showed a strong impact on flows and stocks of green water, with a reduction of the water content in soil and a substantial increase in evapotranspiration. Blue water is mostly impacted in terms of snow stock and discharge flow, which both showed a substantial decrease. Secondly, hydrological projections were performed (2010-2050) based on a selection of climate scenarios and models, submitted to dynamic downscaling. Analysis of these projections partly confirmed the conclusions drawn from the historic period: i.e. a substantial impact on green water, with a decrease of the soil water content and an increase of potential evapotranspiration. The projections also revealed that the soil water content during the summer season is such that it reduces the actual evapotranspiration, highlighting possible future deficits of green water stocks. Furthermore, if the analysis of blue water components always presented a substantial decrease in the snowpack, discharge appears to increase during autumn and winter periods. These results indicate an "acceleration" of blue surface water components which is likely related to an increase in extreme rainfall events. In this study, an analysis of the variation of the main hydrological cycle components have been proposed at a watershed scales, confirming the importance of taking into account all these components to evaluate the climate change impact and more broadly environmental changes on water resources.

Ce mémoire a pour objectif d’analyser la pertinence d’une culture stratégique particulière, celle de l’Inde. Au moins quatre variables culturelles à dimension sécuritaire – l’identité, les valeurs, les normes et les perceptions – permettent d’expliquer la conception de la sécurité et du pouvoir indiens. L’hypothèse avancée dans ce mémoire est la suivante : à cause de l’influence de la culture stratégique indienne, l’océan Indien est perçu par l’élite indienne comme l’endroit où réside la principale menace à la sécurité de l’Inde. En outre, cette perception particulière de la menace permet de mieux comprendre les ambitions maritimes de l’Inde dans l’océan Indien à l’aube du 21e siècle. Afin de confirmer l’hypothèse, nous analysons l’influence de la culture stratégique indienne sur les approches stratégiques privilégiées par les décideurs Indiens au sein de l’océan Indien. Nous concluons, sur la base de l’étude cas, que l’objectif stratégique de New Delhi est de devenir la puissance maritime dominante de l’océan Indien. Le moyen privilégié est la création d’une marine océanique puissante, capable de maintenir en permanence une escadre en patrouille loin de ses bases navales. Sur le plan théorique, les actions indiennes – qui ont surtout un caractère défensif – sont justifiées par une doctrine de non-ingérence des grandes puissances dans les affaires indiennes, doctrine calquée sur la doctrine Monroe. Selon la doctrine indienne, seules les puissances régionales sont à même de préserver la stabilité dans la région de l’océan Indien. Conséquemment, le Gouvernement indien œuvre à réduire l’ingérence des marines de guerre étrangères au sein de l’océan Indien. / This thesis aims to analyze the relevance of a particular strategic culture, that of India. At least four cultural variables, each with a specific security dimension - identity, values, norms and perceptive lens - help us understand the Indian notions of security and power. The main hypothesis put forward in our paper is as follows: because Indian elite are deeply influenced by the prevailing Indian strategic culture, they perceive the Indian Ocean as the place where the main security threat to the country’s security lies. In addition, this particular security perception makes it possible to better understand India’s maritime ambitions in the Indian Ocean at the dawn of the 21st century. To confirm this, we analyze the influence of Indian strategic culture on strategic approaches privileged by Indian decision-makers within the Indian Ocean. We conclude that New Delhi’s strategic objective is to become the dominant maritime power in the Indian Ocean. The means to bring about this end is the creation of a strong blue water navy capable of sustaining a permanent squadron on patrol far from its naval bases. Furthermore, Indian naval activities - which are mainly defensive in nature - are justified by a doctrine of non-interference by major powers in Indian domestic affairs, a doctrine modeled on the Monroe Doctrine. According to the Indian doctrine, only the regional powers are able to preserve stability in the Indian Ocean region. Consequently, the Indian Government works to reduce the presence of foreign naval forces in the Indian Ocean.

No description available.

Water constraints for humans and nature are gaining more and more public attention as a critical environmental dilemma that needs to be addressed. When aquifers and rivers are running dry, the debate refers to an ongoing “world water crisis”. This thesis focuses on the water and agricultural production complexity in a global, regional and local perspective during different phases of development. It addresses the river basin closing process in light of consumptive water use changes, land use alterations, past and future food production in waterscarce developing countries in general, and a south Indian case study basin in particular, the Bhavani basin in Tamil Nadu. The study focuses on early phases of global agricultural development and addresses consumptive use and river depletion in response to land use change and irrigation expansion. It shows that focus must be shifted from a water use to a consumptive water use notion that considers both green and blue water resources. The Bhavani basin development trajectory reveals a dynamic interplay between land and water resources and different socio-political groups during the “green revolution” period. The present system has emerged as a step-by-step adaptation in response to hydro-climatic variability, human demands and infrastructure constraints. The study reveals three kinds of basin closure: allocation closure; hydrological closure; and perception wise closure. Many concerted actions on multiple scales have contributed to an increasing water use complexity even after closure. The study shows the extent to which natural variability hides creeping changes, and that the “average year” is a deceptive basis for water allocation planning. Future consumptive water requirements to feed growing populations in the developing world is analysed with a back-casting country-based approach. The study shows a doubling of water requirements by 2050 and how the challenge can be halved by increased water productivity. Since blue water accessibility for irrigation clearly will be insufficient, additional green water has to be acquired by horizontal agricultural expansion into other terrestrial ecosystems. The task will be substantial and increase the importance of global food trade. / Vattenbrist för människor och ekosystem är en mer och mer uppmärksammad miljöfråga. Sjunkande grundvattennivåer och uttorkade floder gör att många talar om en ”global vattenkris”. Denna avhandling fokuserar på de komplexa sambanden mellan vatten och jordbruksproduktion utifrån ett globalt, regionalt och lokalt perspektiv under olika utvecklingsfaser under fyra sekler. Den redogör för hur avrinningsområden överintecknas och slutligen ”stängs” för ytterligare vattenutvinning. Effekterna av ökad vattenutvinning i relation till historisk och framtida matproduktion analyseras generellt i utvecklingsländer med vattenbrist, och i detalj i en fallstudie i Bhavani avrinningsområde i Tamil Nadu i södra Indien. Studien visar för den tidiga jordbruksutvecklingen på global nivå hur förändrad markanvändning och bevattningsexpansion leder till förändrad balans mellan evapotranspiration och avrinning, med uttorkning av vattendrag som följd. Den visar vidare vikten av ett paradigmskifte där fokus flyttas från vattenanvändning till ”konsumerande” vattenanvändning, och som inkluderar både grönvatten- och blåvattenresurser. Analysen av Bhavaniområdets utvecklingskurva under det senaste seklets jordbruksutveckling visar på ett dynamiskt växelspel mellan land- och vattenresurser och mellan olika samhällsgrupper. Den nuvarande vattenanvändningssituationen har stegvis växt fram som en respons på hydroklimatisk variabilitet, människors behov och infrastrukturbegränsningar. Studien påvisar att ett avrinningsområde kan ses som ”stängt” på tre skilda sätt: när flödet är överintecknat, när utflödet sinar, och när vattenanvändare upplever att behoven överstiger tillgången. Även efter ”stängning” har etablering och intensifiering av vattenutvinning fortsatt och resulterat i ett alltmer komplext och sammanflätat vattenanvändningsmönster. Studien visar vidare hur hög hydroklimatisk variabilitet, dels gör att ”genomsnittlig vattentillgång” är förledande vid planering av vattenfördelning i ett avrinningsområde, och dels döljer smygande kumulativa effekter av ökad vattenutvinning. Slutligen anlyseras ländervis framtida vattenbehov för att möta matbehovet i världens utvecklingsländer, vilket visar på en fördubbling fram till 2050. Tack vare ökad vattenproduktivitet kan behovet emellertid halveras. Endast en bråkdel av det resterande behovet kan mötas genom ökad bevattning, dvs. med mera blåvatten. En stor del av vattenbehovet måste istället täckas med mera grönvatten via uppodling av andra terrestra ekosystem. Uppgiften innebär en betydande utmaning och global handel med jordbruksprodukter kommer att öka avsevärt i betydelse.