Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) is a debilitating condition affecting more than two percent of the general population. Typical age of onset is between 12 to 13 years of age with two thirds of individuals with BDD experiencing symptom onset before age 18, when children and adolescents typically still live in the familial home. Despite the highly debilitating nature of the disorder, the alarming rates of suicide and suicidal ideation among individuals diagnosed with BDD, and the relational problems that exist for people with BDD, there is virtually no research evaluating how relationships and attachment plays a role in the development, maintenance, or remission of this disorder. This study fills a gap in the literature regarding the lived relationship experiences of individuals diagnosed with BDD. Eight participants who struggle with BDD were interviewed. A phenomenological approach was used to capture the experiences of participants. As a result, six essential themes and 17 thematic elements emerged from the data: (1) Abject Nature of BDD, (2) BDD’s Negative Impact on Relationships, (3) Childhood Maltreatment and BDD, (4) Systemic Nature of BDD, (5) Relationships as Motivation for Working Toward Recovery, and (6) Strengths and Weaknesses in Mental Health Services for BDD. The construction of three relational cycles emerged as well from the data: Fear of Infidelity/Abandonment Cycle, Shame, Guilt and Isolation Cycle, and Impact of Positive Partnerships on BDD Cycle. One theoretical model was developed: BDD as a Distraction from Relational Pain Model. Suggestions for clinical implications of these Cycles and Model, and future research implications are also provided.

Subjects for this study were 40 women (N= 40) with subclinical bulimia nervosa who were randomly assigned to either a Cognitive Behavioral Treatment group (CBT) or to a waiting list control group. Treatment was provided for 8 weeks in an individual, self-administered format, using an audio-taped treatment package for Body Image Dissatisfaction (BID). Cognitive behavioral treatment focused on changing negative thoughts and feelings about one's body. No specific treatment focused on changing eating symptomatology or concomitant symptoms, although these were assessed. The waiting list control condition received assessment, followed by 8 weeks of no treatment. Treatment outcome measures were three self-report scales that assessed BID and two measures that assessed eating symptomatology and concomitant symptoms. At posttest, treated subjects showed improvement on two of three measures of BID, with a trend towards improvement on the third measure, when compared to waiting list control subjects. Treated subjects also showed a trend towards improved eating symptomatology and concomitant symptoms such as depression and anxiety, relative to waiting list control subjects. The results indicated that CBT is effective for decreasing BID in women with subclinical bulimia nervosa when administered in a self-directed manner.

The popularity of cosmetic surgery in the U.S. has increased dramatically over the last ten years - particularly for women, who make up the largest group of cosmetic surgery consumers. Cosmetic surgery can include relatively simple procedures such as permanent hair removal or Botox to more complicated procedures like breast augmentations and face-lifts. The rise in popularity of cosmetic surgery exalts only one kind of beauty and excludes many women from ever attaining this ideal, so while women may feel empowered, surgery acts as a form of assimilation, because the act of cosmetic surgery reifies an exclusionary beauty norm. With cosmetic surgery, this hegemonic ideal is becoming more attainable, and in the process, some women modify their individual identities, which I argue are shaped by such things as ethnicity, age, body shape, wrinkles, etc., and instead tend to become one homogenized group. I also argue that cosmetic surgery is a form of colonization of the body because most people who do fit with what is perceived as normal and beautiful experience pressure to assimilate. The body becomes colonized (via surgery) much as a country does in the sense that the colonizing group otherizes the colonized, and deems their way of life, or culture, as abhorrent and in need of assimilation to the dominant groups way of life. The colonizers (creators of the beauty myth) seek to modify womens identities in order to suit the beauty ideal. The modification of identity is a possibility because some of the most common procedures such as rhinoplasty, eyelid surgery, and Botox, seek to eliminate, or downplay, ethnic, or age associated traits in exchange for traits that adhere to the beauty ideal. External markers such as an ethnic nose, or even wrinkles, help define women and link them to their cultural origins or individual identity. Society has deemed such markers, particularly for women, as unacceptable because they are not in line with the U.S.'s beauty ideal, therefore, cosmetic surgery, and the inevitable the move towards monoculturalism threatens women's identities.

The current study was an investigation of the self-schema and social comparison theories of the development of body dissatisfaction. Social comparison stimuli, consisting of photographs of women, were piloted and selected to form 3 stimuli sets: upward comparison, downward comparison, and no comparison. A priming manipulation consisting of an imagery exercise intended to prime participants appearance self-schema was also piloted. Participants completed state measures of body image and mood at pretest, were given the priming manipulation and the social comparison stimuli, then completed posttest measures of mood and body image, as well as providing demographic information. Results indicated no significant interaction between priming and social comparison and no significant main effect for priming. However, there was a significant effect of social comparison, such that those in the downward comparison condition showed decreased body dissatisfaction and negative mood. Results are discussed in the context of self-schema theory and social comparison, and suggestions are given for future research that might further shed light on these topics.

Smoking is now the leading cause of preventable death and disease in women. Understanding women's motivations to smoke is important in developing effective cessation and relapse prevention programs. Women, more so than men, appear to associate their smoking behavior to issues of weight. Although a general relationship between weight concerns and smoking has been found among women, a causal relationship had not been demonstrated. This study tested whether activation of negative body image cognitions would produce greater urges to smoke and whether the relationship would be moderated by trait body dissatisfaction and mediated by state body dissatisfaction. A randomized 2 X 2 crossed factorial, within-subjects design (body image cues X smoking cues) was conducted with 62 female college smokers. The body image manipulation comprised an image of either a thin model or a neutral object, and the smoking manipulation comprised an image of either a smoking cue or a neutral object. Participants completed pre-intervention measures assessing smoking history and body image dissatisfaction. Urge to smoke, mood state, and weight and appearance satisfaction were assessed during the experiment. It was hypothesized that main effects on reported urge to smoke would be found for both manipulations, with body dissatisfaction moderating the body image manipulation. Results indicated that both smoking cues and thin model images increased reported urges to smoke. Additionally, in the absence of smoking cues, the effect of the body image manipulation was moderated by baseline body dissatisfaction, with those women with greater body dissatisfaction reacting more strongly to the thin model image. The effect on smoking urges by the body image manipulation was partially mediated by both state measures of affect and body satisfaction. Thus,this study is the first to demonstrate through an experimental design that the presentation of images portraying thin women increased smoking urge, which is consistent with a causal influence of body image affecting their smoking motivation.

Although the research on expectancy theory and body image and eating disturbance is very limited, it appears to be an extremely useful and promising line of study. It appears likely that the application of expectancy theory would lend itself well to the area of body image disturbance and eating disorders. Within the field of body image disturbance and eating disorders research, expectancies would most likely refer to the anticipated consequences of being thin. Such expectancies may be established by an individual's direct experience with weight loss and dieting or through the observation of the messages concerning the societal "thin ideal" projected by the media, parents, and peers. The current study attempted to develop and validate a measure of women's expectancies, or anticipated consequences of being thin. The Thinness Expectancy Questionnaire (TEQ) was developed in a series of three studies: Item Generation, Item Analysis, and Validity and Reliability Analysis. First, a pilot study was conducted in order to generate a broad range of items regarding expectancies about being thin. Second, the initial measure was administered to 355 undergraduate females. A factor analysis and item analysis produced a final version of the TEQ. Last, reliability and validity analyses were conducted. Overall, results indicate that positive thinness expectancies are related to body image and eating problems whereas negative expectancies appear to have a limited connection with or are unrelated to body image/eating disorders. Although hypothesized models indicated poor to mediocre fits of the data, they represent an initial attempt at examining the role of thinness expectancies in the development of body image concerns and eating disturbance. The results indicate that positive expectancies of thinness are related to women's body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance. In other words, women's positive expectations and assumptions about being thin may put them at risk for developing difficulties with body image and eating concerns. As a result, preventative interventions that incorporate techniques that challenge or modify these cognitions would seem to be most effective.

Scholars have proved negative effects of social network sites on women’s body image caused by social comparison processes. However, only a few studies have examined the effects of Instagram on women’s appearance satisfaction and no selfies were taken into consideration in regard to that issue. The purpose of this research was to examine the social comparison theory through the lens of Instagram selfies and determine the effects of selfies on women’s appearance satisfaction. In-depth interviews with 26 female millennials, ages 18 to 32, reveal the re-defined standard of an ideal body image, shifting away from being skinny to becoming fit, affected by the exposure to celebrities and models’ selfies on Instagram. Though some of the participants admitted to having a positive body image, none of the interviewees reported a complete satisfaction with their bodies. Results indicated that although female millennials do look up to celebrities to define their ideal body, they experience equally intense negative feelings after the comparison to selfies of attractive friends. Most importantly, interviews have demonstrated that the number of likes and comments are as important to female millennials as the aesthetics of the selfie. Likes and comments on own selfie play a significant role in the construction of her body image, acting as a sign of validation from the society, and, thus, significantly affecting her self-esteem and perception of her own beauty.

The Body Project is a cognitive dissonance-based eating disorder (ED) preventive intervention program with ample empirical support among adolescent and undergraduate female samples. Recently, community stakeholders and data suggest that preventive efforts must also target body satisfaction and increasing ED symptomatology seen in males. The current study examined the efficacy of a male-only (MO), a mixed-sex (MS), and a traditional female-only (FO) Body Project program compared to a minimal attention control (AC) in a community sample. Participants included adolescents male and female students (N = 182) aged 13-19 years across three high school sites. Participants completed self-report measures assessing body satisfaction, thin-ideal internalization, ED symptom count, psychosocial impairment secondary to weight and shape concerns, and acceptability of the Body Project 4 High Schools program at baseline and post-intervention. Hierarchical linear regressions and generalized linear models were used to estimate main effects of condition and examine whether sex moderated condition effects on outcome variables. In single-sex groups, girls showed greater improvement in body satisfaction compared to AC, while boys did not show significant differences from AC. For boys and girls, MS was associated with improved body satisfaction compared to AC, while its impact on other risk factors was largely non-significant. Effect sizes are presented as a measure of clinical significance. These results contribute to existing Body Project data and provide preliminary empirical support of the applicability of the well-established dissonance-based preventive intervention to adolescent boys.

Bakgrund: Bröstcancer är den vanligaste cancerformen för kvinnor i Sverige och internationellt. En konsekvens av bröstcancer kan vara mastektomi vilket innebär att det sjuka bröstet avlägsnas. Tidigare studier visar att brösten har en viktig betydelse för kvinnors sexualitet och femininiteten, kvinnor som genomgått mastektomi efterlyser mer information från sjukvården angående hur den sexuella hälsan kan upplevas. Samtidigt upplever sjuksköterskor en rädsla för att tala om sexualitet med patienter. Syfte: Syftet var att belysa kvinnors upplevelser av sexuell hälsa efter genomgången mastektomi på grund av bröstcancer. Metod: Metoden var en litteraturöversikt sammansatt av 10 resultatartiklar bestående av sex artiklar med kvalitativ, två med mixad och två med kvantitativ metod. Dessa analyserades enligt Fribergs metod för att finna likheter och skillnader som kategoriserades i huvudteman och underteman. Resultat: I resultatet presenterades tre huvudteman med totalt fyra tillhörande underteman. Dessa huvudteman var: Den förändrade kroppsbilden, Förändringar i den intima relationen och Ingen förändring av den sexuella hälsan. Kvinnor upplevde att de förlorade sin kvinnlighet och att de inte såg sig själva som attraktiva längre. Det framkom även att kvinnor upplevde en osäkerhet inför att visa kroppen i en intim relation efter genomgången mastektomi. Många upplevde en förändring av den sexuella lusten och en saknad av brösten och bröstvårtorna i en intim relation. Resultatet visade även att kvinnor blev lämnade av sin partner. Några kvinnor beskrev att deras män inte kunde hantera den sexuella relationen efter mastektomin vilket resulterade i en separation. Vissa kvinnor upplevde inte någon förändring i den sexuella hälsan. Diskussion: Författarna använde sig av Erikssons teori om lidande där fokus lades på vårdlidande och livslidande. Sociala medier har i dagens samhälle en stor del i människans liv och på så vis en inverkan på kvinnors utseendeideal och kroppsuppfattning. Samtal om sexuell hälsa är något som bör lyftas av vårdpersonalen för att skapa större förståelse och trygghet för individen och vad som kan komma att förändras. Då vi lever i ett heteronormativt samhälle är det viktigt att även bi- och homosexuella kvinnors sexuella hälsa lyfts. / Background: Breast cancer is the most common cancer diagnosis for women in Sweden and worldwide. A consequence of breast cancer can be mastectomy which means that the diseased breast is removed. For many women the breasts have an important impact to their sexuality and femininity. Many women wanted more information from the healthcare about how the sexual health would be affected by the mastectomy. At the same time many nurses have a fear talking about sexuality with patients. Aim: The aim of this literature review was to illustrate women's experiences of sexual health after completing a mastectomy caused by breast cancer. Method: The literature review consists of 10 articles: six have qualitative method, two with mixed method and two with quantitative method. These were examined according to Fribergs (2012) method to find similarities which then were divided into major themes and sub themes. Results: The results are presented in three main themes with five subthemes. These main themes are: The altered body image, Changes in the intimate relationship and No change in sexual health. Women felt that they had lost their femininity and that they did not see themselves as attractive anymore. It also emerged that women experienced an uncertainty about showing their bodies in an intimate relationship after the mastectomy. Many experienced a change in sexual desire and a lack of the breasts and the nipples in the intimate relationship. The results also showed that some women were left by their partners since they could not handle the situation. Some women experienced no change in the sexual health. Discussion: The authors used the theory of Eriksson about suffering. Social media has in today's society a big part in people's life and an impact in women's appearance and ideal body image. Talking about sexual health is something that should be lifted by the nursing staff to provide greater understanding and support for the individual and the changes that might appear. Since we live in a heteronormative society, it is essential that we pay attention to bi- and homosexual women's sexual health.

The purpose of the present study was to use a biopsychosocial approach to investigate the role of body image concerns and appearance-related evaluation stress in the relationship between adiposity and cardiovascular reactivity and recovery. Participants included 106 Caucasian female undergraduates at the University of South Florida. The laboratory procedure consisted of resting baseline, speech preparation and delivery, and recovery phases. Participants also completed a variety of body image questionnaires. To manipulate appearance-related evaluation stress, participants were randomly assigned to present their speech to a video camera or an audio recorder. Overall adiposity was measured as body mass index (BMI) and central adiposity was measured as waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). Greater adiposity was associated with more weight-related anxiety during the speech task, regardless of speech condition (BMI: r = .54, p < .001; WHR: r = .44, p < .001). Additionally, those in the video condition reported more weight-related anxiety (M = 9.28, SD = 7.74) during the speech task than those in the audio condition (M = 3.31, SD < 5.61; F(1,99) = 19.73, p < .001). Significant relationships between adiposity and CVR and recovery emerged for several outcome measures with central and overall adiposity predicting different CVR patterns (all ps < .05). There was no main effect of speech condition on CVR or recovery (all ps > .05). Significant interactions between adiposity and speech condition emerged for some of the outcome variables as well (all ps < .05). Additionally, body image concerns mediated the relationship between adiposity, speech condition, and CVR for SV and CO reactivity. The results suggest that adiposity may have a robust effect on physiological reactivity and recovery independent of psychological processes that co-occur. The results also suggest that those with high adiposity experience more weight-related anxiety during evaluation, even when the evaluation is not intended to induce body image concerns. Finally, the results suggest that body image concerns may act to suppress reactivity among those with high levels of weight-related anxiety. Implications and future directions for research are discussed.