L’objectif était d’évaluer l’efficacité de thérapies développées pour traiter la dystrophie musculaire de Duchenne (DMD, due à des mutations du gène de la dystrophine) dans la restauration de déficits cognitifs associés à ce syndrome. Deux pistes thérapeutiques visant à compenser les altérations cérébrales liées à la perte de dystrophine ont été explorées chez les souris mdx, modèle de DMD. Une approche pharmacologique basée sur la surexpression de l’utrophine, homologue de la dystrophine, n’améliore pas les déficits comportementaux des souris mdx. Par contre, une intervention génique basée sur l’épissage de l’exon muté conduit à la restauration d’une dystrophine endogène et une récupération d’altérations cérébrales comme l’agrégation des récepteurs GABAA et la plasticité synaptique hippocampique. Ceci suggère un rôle de la dystrophine dans la plasticité du cerveau adulte et l’applicabilité de cette approche de thérapie génique au traitement des altérations cognitives de la DMD. / Therapies have been developed to treat Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD, due to mutation in the dystrophin gene), but their ability to restore the cognitive deficits associated with this syndrome has not been yet studied. We explored two therapeutic approaches to compensate for the brain alterations resulting from the loss of dystrophin in the mdx mouse, a model of DMD. A pharmacological approach based on the overexpression of utrophin, a dystrophin homologue, does not alleviate the behavioural deficits in these mice. In contrast, a genetic intervention based on the splicing of the mutated exon leads to the restoration of endogenous dystrophin and a recovery of brain alterations such as the clustering of GABAA receptors and hippocampal synaptic plasticity in mdx mice. These results suggest a role for dystrophin in adult brain plasticity and indicate that this gene therapy approach is applicable to the treatment of cognitive impairments in DMD.

Les douleurs viscérales sont des douleurs diffuses et irradiantes dont le traitement est souvent problématique faute d'étiologie bien identifiée. En particulier, les douleurs abdominales observées dans les troubles fonctionnels digestifs (TFI) s'expriment en l'absence d'atteinte organique ce qui rend difficile la compréhension des mécanismes physio-pathologiques de ces troubles. Cette problématique est un enjeu de santé publique puisque les TFI, et en premier lieu le syndrome de l'intestin irritable (SII), concerneraient 20% de la population occidentale. Les études cliniques fournissent des pistes de recherche sur l'origine des troubles dans les TFI mais sont souvent insuffisantes pour décortiquer leurs mécanismes physio-pathologiques. Les modèles animaux apparaissent comme une voie alternative permettant de tester des hypothèses diverses sur l'origine des douleurs viscérales. Nous avons ainsi utilisé un modèle animal de SII développé au laboratoire, le modèle butyrate, qui se base sur des données cliniques rapportant un excès de butyrate, un acide gras à chaîne courte, dans le côlon des patients atteints de SII. Ce modèle consiste en 6 instillations intra-coliques de butyrate 200mM, réalisées sur une durée de 4 jours, qui induisent une hyper-sensibilité colique (HSC) chez le rat dès la fin des instillations. L'HSC induite par le butyrate est évaluable par le test de distension colo-rectale (DCR). Elle est persistante et ne s'accompagne pas de lésion de la muqueuse colique ce qui est en accord avec les caractéristiques cliniques du SII. Après avoir établi la pertinence du modèle butyrate pour l'étude du SII, l'équipe s'est attaché à l'étude des mécanismes par lesquels le butyrate induit une HSC. Un traitement néo-natal des rats par la capsaïcine, qui permet de détruire les fibres nociceptives de type C, empêche le développement de l'HSC induite par le butyrate chez ces rats devenus adultes. Les afférences coliques de type C transmettent donc le message douloureux viscéral induit par le butyrate. L'objectif premier de ce travail de thèse a été de déterminer par quel mécanisme le butyrate sensibilise ces afférences. Nous avons émis l'hypothèse que le nerve growth factor (NGF), une neurotrophine impliquée dans la nociception et dans les processus d'inflammation neurogène des nerfs entériques dans le SII, pourrait contribuer à la sensibilisation colique. Implication du NGF dans l'HSC Nous avons montré que l'administration répétée d'anticorps anti-NGF (voie i.p.) prévient l'HSC induite par le butyrate, évaluée lors du test de DCR. De plus, nous avons montré par immuno-histo-chimie (IHC) que le NGF est exprimé dans le côlon des rats traités avec du butyrate mais son expression n'y est pas augmentée. En revanche, le NGF est sur-exprimé dans les ganglions rachidiens dorsaux (GRD) innervant le côlon. Ces résultats indiquent que le NGF est impliqué dans l'HSC induite par le butyrate et que son action pourrait s'exercer principalement au niveau du système nerveux périphérique (GRD). En effet, le NGF est impliqué dans le développement des phénomènes d'hyperalgie en induisant l'expression de molécules jouant un rôle clé dans la nociception comme les canaux ioniques. Notre attention s'est portée sur les canaux ioniques sensibles à l'acide (ASIC) et le transient receptor potential vannilloid1 (TRPV1) car de nombreuses études ont montré l'implication de ces canaux dans les douleurs viscérales et leur modulation par le NGF. Implication des canaux ASIC dans l'HSC Nous avons montré que l'administration d'amiloride (antagoniste des canaux ASIC, voie i.v.) mais pas celle de capsazepine (antagoniste du TRPV1, voie i.p.) prévient l'HSC induite par le butyrate, évaluée lors du test de DCR. L'HSC induite par le butyrate implique donc un mécanisme dépendant des ASIC mais pas de TRPV1. De plus, nous avons montré par RT-PCR semi-quantitative que le niveau d'expression des ARNm des gènes codant les sous-unités ASIC1A et ASIC1B est augmentée dans les GRD des rats butyrate. L'augmentation du niveau d'expression des ARNm a été corrélée à une augmentation de l'expression de la protéine ASIC1A dans les GRD, quantifiée par IHC. En déterminant la proportion de neurones immuno-réactifs (IR) à la protéine ASIC1A, nous avons montré que sa sur-expression est restreinte aux neurones de petit diamètre. Ces résultats montrent que le canal ASIC1A est impliqué dans l'HSC induite par le butyrate. Nous avons ensuite voulu savoir si, en accord avec la bibliographie, la sur-expression de ASIC1A pouvait être la conséquence de celle du NGF. Modulation de l'expression de ASIC1A par le NGF dans l'HSC Nous avons tout d'abord montré par microscopie confocale que le NGF et son récepteur de haute affinité (trkA) sont colocalisés avec ASIC1A dans les neurones sensoriels et en particulier dans ceux exprimant le calcitonin gene-related peptide. Nous avons ensuite montré par IHC et par Western blot que la sur-expression de ASIC1A dans les GRD est prévenue par le blocage du NGF grâce à l'administration répétée d'anticorps anti-NGF (voie i.p.). Ces résultats indiquent que la sur-expression de ASIC1A dans l'HSC induite par le butyrate est dépendante du NGF. Nous pouvons conclure que le NGF et le canal ASIC1A interviennent dans les GRD (et probablement dans les neurones sensoriels de type nociceptif) où ils participent aux phénomènes de sensibilisation concourant au développement de l'HSC induite par le butyrate. Nous ne rapportons pas de variation d'expression du NGF ou de ASIC1A au niveau colique. Ce résultat suggère que la mise en jeu de ces molécules ne se fait pas au niveau des terminaisons libres coliques mais plutôt dans l'élément pré-synaptique de la première synapse nociceptive centrale où elles pourraient amplifier l'activité synaptique médullaire. Nous avons ainsi émis l'hypothèse que l'HSC induite par le butyrate est associée à une sensibilisation centrale de la moëlle épinière (MEp). Sensibilisation centrale dans l'HSC Nous avons utilisé la méthodologie Fos, un marqueur de l'activité neuronale, afin d'évaluer l'état d'excitation de la MEp chez les rats butyrate. L'étude de l'expression spinale de la protéine Fos chez les rats soumis à une DCR nocive répétée a montré que les rats traités avec du butyrate présentent une densité de neurones Fos-IR augmentée par rapport aux rats contrôles dans les couches superficielles de la corne dorsale de la MEp. L'HSC induite par le butyrate s'accompagne spécifiquement du recrutement des segments thoraciques T10-T11-T12 de la MEp dans lesquels nous avons observé une une hyper-réactivité neuronale en réponse à la DCR. De plus, en l'absence de stimulation colique, les rats butyrate présentent hyper-activité basale dans les segments T10-T11-T12. Comme le canal ASIC1A spinal participe aux courants provoqués par un stimulus douloureux, nous avons ensuite voulu savoir si cette hyper-activité de la MEp pouvait être la conséquence d'une transmission synaptique accrue impliquant ASIC1A. Nous avons montré que l'administration de PcTx1 (antagoniste des canaux ASIC1A, voie i.t.) prévient l'HSC induite par le butyrate, évaluée lors du test de DCR. Ce résultat indique que les canaux ASIC1A participent aux mécanismes centraux de l'HSC dans le modèle butyrate. Nous avons également montré par RT-PCR et Western blot que le canal ASIC1A est sur-exprimé dans la MEp des rats butyrate. De plus, il est exprimé dans les neurones spinaux activés par la DCR où il est co-localisé avec Fos. ASIC1A pourrait donc participer à la transmission du message nociceptif viscéral dans la corne dorsale de la MEp. L'expression des ARNm codant les sous-unités ASIC2A et ASIC2B a également été trouvée augmentée dans la MEp par RT-PCR ce qui suggère que l'hyper-excitabilité spinale observée dans le modèle butyrate pourrait résulter d'une augmentation des conductances ioniques générées par l'activation des canaux hétéromériques de type ASIC1/ASIC2. Tout comme à la périphérie, la sur-expression de ASIC1A pourrait être sous dépendance du NGF. Nos résultats montrent en effet que le NGF est exprimé dans la MEp et que l'administration systémique répétée d'anticorps anti-NGF prévient la sur-expression des ARNm et de la protéine ASIC1A dans la MEp des rats traités avec du butyrate. En conclusion, ce travail de thèse suggère que le NGF et le canal ASIC1A jouent un rôle critique dans le développement de douleurs viscérales en contribuant à la fois aux phénomènes de sensibilisations périphérique et centrale. La meilleure compréhension des mécanismes d'interaction ASIC-NGF dans l'HSC pourrait donc ouvrir de nouvelles perspectives thérapeutiques dans le traitement des douleurs viscérales d'étiologie inconnue comme le SII en se basant sur des stratégies visant à diminuer l'effet potentialisateur du NGF sur les ASIC.

No description available.

O presente trabalho visou preparar e caracterizar eletrólitos poliméricos (EP) à base de poli(vinil butirato) (PVB) com diferentes sais de lítio (LiClO4, LiCF3SO3 e LiI/I2), com ou sem o plastificante g-butirolactona (GBL), além de viabilizar a aplicação dos mesmos em dispositivos eletrocrômicos e células solares. Observou-se, através das análises por espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica, que o PVB é capaz de solvatar no máximo 40% de sal de lítio em massa. Foi verificado que as condutividades iônicas dessas amostras, em função do aumento da temperatura, podem ser explicadas pelo modelo Vogel-Tammann-Fulcher, e que o eletrólito PF04 (PVB com 40% de LiCF3SO3) possui o maior valor de condutividade (1,5´10-4 S/cm) com relação às outras amostras. Os espectros de infravermelho das amostras estudadas mostraram um deslocamento nos picos correspondentes às carbonilas da matriz polimérica em resposta à coordenação das mesmas com íons Li+. Os resultados da espectroscopia Raman comprovaram a presença do par redox (I3-/I-) no eletrólito com LiI/I2. Os difratogramas de raios-X do PVB evidenciaram um pico largo centrado em 20º (2q) com 800 c.p.s. de intensidade, a adição de LiI/I2 e LiCF3SO3 ao polímero reduziu as intensidades para 750 e 700 c.p.s respectivamente, ao contrário do observado com LiClO4, onde se nota que o sal não foi completamente solvatado pelo polímero. A micrografia obtida por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM) do eletrólito com 23% de LiClO4 (amostra P04) mostraram evidências de aglomerados iônicos na superfície. As análises por calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC) mostraram que um aumento na concentração de sal adicionado ao polímero causou uma diminuição na temperatura de transição vítrea (Tg), e que os eletrólitos possuem em torno de 44% de cristalinidade. Os eletrólitos P04 e PF04 foram aplicados em janelas eletrocrômicas, apresentando uma diferença de 10,5 e 9,3% respectivamente entre os estados colorido e descolorido. O eletrólito com LiI/I2 foi aplicado em célula solar gerando uma fotocorrente máxima de 1,09 mA/cm2 e eficiência de 0,41% sob a irradiação de 100 mW/cm2. Eletrólitos géis com adição de 90% γ-butirolactona também foram aplicados em células solares, os valores de fotocorrente e eficiência foram incrementados (5,82 mA/cm2 e 2,1%, respectivamente). / The aim of the present study was to prepare and characterize polymer electrolytes (EP) based on poly(vinyl butyrate) (PVB) with different lithium salts (LiClO4, LiCF3SO3 and LiI/I2) and/or containing g-butyrolactone (GBL), and to apply them in electrochromic devices and solar cells. It was observed through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy that the PVB is able to solvate up to 40% in weight of lithium salt. It was found that the ionic conductivity of these samples, as a function of temperature, can be explained by Vogel-Tammann-Fulcher model, and the electrolyte PF04 (PVB with 40% of LiCF3SO3) had the highest conductivity value of 1,5´10-4 S/cm when compared to other samples. Infrared spectra of the samples showed a shift in the peaks corresponding to the carbonyl groups of the polymer matrix in response to their coordination with Li+ ions. The results of Raman spectroscopy confirmed the presence of the redox couple (I3-/I-) in the electrolyte with LiI/I2 (PVB04). The X-ray diffractograms of the PVB showed a broad peak centered at 20 (2q) com intensity of 800 cps. The addition of LiI/I2 and LiCF3SO3 to the polymer matrix decreased the intensities to 750 and 700 cps respectively, but not after the LiClO4 addition, which was explained by its not complete solvatation by the polymer matrix. The Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) pictures of electrolyte with 23% of LiClO4 (P04 sample) showed evidences of ion clusters on the surface. The analyzes via Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) showed that an increase in the concentration of the salt added to the polymer matrix caused a decrease in glass transition temperature (Tg), and that electrolytes are about 44% crystalline. The electrolytes P04 and PF04 were applied to electrochromic windows (ECDs) and showed a transmittance difference of 10.5 and 9.3%, respectively between the colored and discolored states. The electrolyte with LiI/I2 was applied to dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC) generating a maximum photocurrent of 1.09 mA/cm2 and 0.41% of efficiency under irradiation of 100 mW/cm2. Gel electrolytes containing 90% of γ-butyrolactone were applied to DSSC and showed 5.82 mA/cm2 of photocurrent and 2.1% of efficiency.

In the human gut, bacterial fermentation of dietary fibers and proteins produces metabolites, primarily as short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), that are highly beneficial for host health. However, unlike dietary fiber, bacterial fermentation of protein additionally generates potentially toxic substances such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, amines, and indoles. It is believed that most gut bacteria favor utilization of dietary fiber over that of protein for energy. Therefore, when fermentable dietary fiber is readily available to colonic bacteria, protein fermentation, and its subsequent potentially toxic metabolites, remains relatively low. Dietary intake primarily determines the quantity of dietary fiber and protein substrate available to the gut microbiota and the resulting profile of metabolites produced. Increased protein consumption is associated with deleterious health outcomes such as higher risk of colorectal cancer and type II diabetes. Conversely, diets following US dietary recommendations are high in fiber, which promote a healthy microbiome and are protective against disease. Diets following the recommendation are also moderate in protein intake so that, ultimately, far more fiber than protein is available for colonic bacterial fermentation. On the contrary, dietary fiber intake is chronically low in a standard Western diet, while protein consumption is above dietary recommendations, which results in nearly equal amounts of dietary fiber and protein available for gut microbial fermentation. Furthermore, the popularity of high-protein diets for athletes, as well as that of high-protein low-carbohydrate diets for weight loss, may flip fiber and protein substrate proportions upside down, resulting in more protein than fiber available in the gut for fermentation. The objective of this study was to elucidate how substrate ratios in protein-fiber mixtures affect protein fermentation and metabolites, as well as examine the degree to which fiber source may influence these outcomes. Each dietary fiber source [fructooligosaccharides (FOS), apple pectin (Pectin), a wheat bran and raw potato starch mixture (WB+PS), and an even mixture of the three aforementioned fibers (Even Mix)] and protein were combined in three ratios and provided as substrate for in vitro fecal fermentation to understand how low, medium, and high fiber inclusion levels influence fermentation outcomes. They were compared to 100% protein and fiber (each different fiber) controls. Branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs), metabolites produced exclusively from protein fermentation, were used as a measure of protein fermentation; the data were normalized based on the initial quantity of protein within the substrate. In protein-fiber substrate mixtures, only FOS and Even Mix inhibited BCFAs (mM/g protein basis) and only when they made up at least half of the substrate. Unexpectedly, the rate of protein fermentation was increased when the protein-fiber substrate contained 25% WB+PS fiber, possibly due to the starch component of the fiber. There was evidence that when pH drops during fermentation, as was the case for protein-FOS mixtures, it played a significant role in suppressing protein fermentation. Ammonia production was not largely affected by increasing the proportion of dietary fiber. A significant reduction did not occur until FOS made up at least 50% of the protein-fiber substrate; for Pectin, WB+PS, and Even Mix fibers, 75% inclusion was required for a significant decrease in ammonia. Interestingly, protein was butyrogenic. Protein as the sole substrate produced more butyrate than either Pectin or Even Mix as the sole substrates, and in fact, addition of Pectin to protein significantly reduced butyrate concentrations. However, the possible benefits of butyrate produced via protein fermentation needs to be tempered by the production of potentially toxic compounds and the association between protein fermentation and colorectal cancer. Overall, the thesis findings showed protein fermentation to be relatively stable and not easily influenced by increasing the availability of dietary fiber, and no clear evidence of microbial preference for carbohydrates over protein was found.

The cell wall provides a complex and rigid structure to the plant for support, protection from environmental factors, and transport. It is mainly composed of polysaccharides, proteins, and lignin. Arabinoxylan (AX), pectin (P), and cellulose (C) are the main components of cereal cell walls and are particularly concentrated in the bran portion of the grain. Cereal arabinoxylans create networks in plant cell walls in which other cell wall polysaccharides are imbedded forming complex matrices. These networks give an insolubility profile to plant cell wall. A previous study in our lab showed that soluble crosslinked arabinoxylan with relatively high residual ferulic acid from corn bran provided advantageous <i>in vitro </i>human fecal fermentation products and promoted butyrogenic gut bacteria. In the present work, arabinoxylan was isolated from corn bran with a mild sodium hydroxide concentration to keep most of its ferulic acid content. Highly ferulated corn bran arabinoxylan was crosslinked to create an insoluble network to mimic the cereal grain cell wall matrices. Firstly, arabinoxylan film (Cax-F), pectin film (P-F), the film produced by embedding pectin into arabinoxylan networks (CaxP-F), and cellulose embedding arabinoxylan matrices (CaxC-F), and embedding the mixture of cellulose and pectin into arabinoxylan networks (CaxCP-F) were fabricated into simulated plant cell wall materials. Water solubility of films in terms of monosaccharide content was examined and revealed that Cax-F was insoluble, and P-F was partially insoluble, and nanosized pectin and cellulose were partially entrapped inside the crosslinked-arabinoxylan matrices. In a further study, these films were used in an <i>in vitro </i>human fecal fermentation assay to understand how gut microbiota access and utilize the different simulated plant cell walls to highlight the role of each plant cell wall component during colonic fermentation. <i>In vitro </i>fecal samples, obtained from three healthy donors were used to ferment the films (Cax-F, P-F, CaxP-F, CaxC-F, and CaxCP-F) and controls (free form of cell wall components -Cax, P and C). The fabricated films that were compositionally similar to cell walls were fermented more slowly than the free polysaccharides (Cax and P). Besides, CaxP-F produced the highest short chain fatty acids (SCFA) amount among the films after 24 hour <i>in vitro </i>fecal fermentation. Regarding specific SCFA, butyrate molar ratio of all films was significantly higher than the free, soluble Cax and P. 16S rRNA gene sequencing explained the differences of the butyrate proportion derived from specific butyrogenic bacteria. Particularly, some bacteria, especially in a butyrogenic genera from Clostridium cluster XIVa, were increased in arabinoxylan films forms compared to the native free arabinoxylan polysaccharide. However, no changes were observed between P and P-F in terms of both end products (SCFA) and microbiota compositions. Moreover, CaxP-F promoted the butyrogenic bacteria in fecal samples compared with pectin alone, arabinoxylan alone, and the arabinoxylan film. Differences in matrix insolubility of the film, which was high for the covalently linked arabinoxylan films, but low for the non-covalent ionic-linked pectin film, appears to play an important role in targeting Clostridial bacterial groups. Overall, the cell wall-like films were useful to understand which bacteria degrade them related to their physical form and location of the fiber polymers. This study showed how fabricated model plant cell wall films influence specificity and competitiveness of some gut bacteria and suggest that fabricated materials using natural fibers might be used for targeted support of certain gut bacteria and bacterial groups.

No description available.

This study investigated the effects of Brevibacillus laterosporus and live yeast (LY) on rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility and microbial protein synthesis. The basal diet was a total mixed ration formulated to fulfil the minimum nutrient requirement of early lactating 600 kg Holstein cow producing 40kg of milk with 3.5 % fat and 3.3 % protein using CPM-dairy software (NRC, 2001). Treatments were: T1 (Control: basal diet with no additive), T2 (Basal diet + Brevibacillus laterosporus), T3 (Basal diet + Live yeast), and T4 (Basal diet + Brevibacillus laterosporus + Live yeast). In situ degradation, in vitro batch fermentation were performed. Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using PROC GLM (SAS Institute, 2009). The effective dry matter (DM) degradability evaluated at low (0.02) and medium (0.05) ruminal passage rate (ED1 and ED2) were higher (p<0.05) in T1 compared to T2 and T3, but did not differ (p>0.05) between T2, T3 and T4, and between T1 and T4. When evaluated at fast passage rate (0.08) the effective DM degradability (ED3) was higher (p<0.05) in T1 compared to T3 and T4, but did not differ (p>0.05) between T1 and T2. The difference in ammonia nitrogen production was observed only between T1 and T2, and was higher (p<0.05) in T1. The total VFA’s concentration was higher (p<0.05) in T3 compared to the control. All additives decreased the molar percentage of acetate (P<0.05). The concentration of acetate was lower (p<0.05) in T3 and T4 compared to control. Propionate concentration was higher (p<0.05) in T3 and T4 compared to other treatments and lower (p<0.05) in the control compared to the rest of treatments. Butyrate concentration was higher (p<0.05) in T2 and T4 compared to the rest of the treatments, and lower (p<0.05) in T3 than other treatments. The microbial protein synthesis measured as purine derivate done on residues was higher (p<0.05) for T3 compared to T1 and T2, but did not differ between T1, T2 and T4, and between T3 and T4. These results showed that the two additives have different individual effects on DM and CP degradability, but also associative effects in some fermentation parameters such as propionate production. / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

Although the etiology and pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is not fully understood, it is generally accepted that the inflammation results from aberrant immune responses to antigens of gut microbiota in genetically susceptible individuals (Sartor et al., 2006). Alteration in intestinal microbiota has been found in IBD patients with increased abundance of certain bacteria and decreased abundance of others. Due to the complexity of the disease, multifaceted interactions between genetic factors, host immune response, gut microbiota and environment factors need to be taken into account. In this thesis, the pathogenesis of IBD was first reviewed in respect with the four factors mentioned above. Then we concentrated on the interaction between IBD-associated bacteria and mucosal immune system. We investigated the ability of mucosal-associated bacteria (MAB) from IBD patients to induce spontaneous colitis in germ-free (GF) mice and the impact of those bacteria on the development of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-colitis. Together with the analysis of the composition of gut microbiota of MAB colonized mice, we demonstrated the potential deleterious microbes were able to increase the susceptibility to DSS-colitis once they found a suitable niche. We revealed the mechanism of an E.coli strain...