The study was designed to develop a nutraceutical product from by-products of fish processing. Fish oil was extracted from mackerel tissues (skin, viscera and muscle) using hexane-isopropanol (3:2 v/v) and chloroform-methanol (2:1 v/v) solvent systems. An oxidative study was carried out to determine the best processing and storage conditions to minimize autooxidation of mackerel oil. Urea complexation was used to concentrate polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) from the extracted fish oil. The urea complexation process was optimized to determine the best reaction conditions for high yield of the omega-3 fatty acids in particular, and total PUFA. / Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) was synthesized from four vegetable oils (sunflower, canola, soybean and corn) by alkaline isomerization. The CLA isomers and PUFA concentrated from mackerel tissues were used to synthesize triglycerides by lipase-catalyzed esterification. The effect of temperature, reaction medium, enzyme, moisture removal system and glycerol to fatty acid ratio on extent of synthesis were investigated. The synthesis process was also optimized using central composite design to determine the best conditions for high synthesis yield. The fatty acid composition and positional analyses were determined by GC-FID and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (EI-MS) / The results showed that mackerel skins were most suitable for concentrating PUFA. The eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and -docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) content of fish oil from the tissues examined ranged between 6.3--9.7 (wt%) with an iodine value of 134 +/- 5.0. The baseline total PUFA content was increased from ca 21.0 to ca 83.0 (wt%) with an associated iodine value of 296 +/- 7.0 using urea complexation. Low (50 ppm and 100 ppm) levels of alpha-tocopherol in combination with low storage temperature (-40°C) showed lowest oxidation after 66 days of storage. High levels (250 and 500 ppm) of alpha-tocopherol were observed to be prooxidant based on TBARS, peroxide and conjugated diene measurements. Urea to fatty acid ratio and temperature were predominant effectors influencing the amounts of individual omega-3 fatty acids and total PUFA concentrated by urea complexation. The model developed for the optimized urea complexation process were capable of predicting the yields of EPA, DHA, total PUFA and Iodine values to a high degree of accuracy at R2 = 0.87, 0.96, 0.95, and 0.92 respectively. / Sunflower oil was most suitable for synthesizing conjugated linoleic acid by alkaline isomerization, compared with soybean, canola and corn oil. Two CLA isomers, c9,t11 and t10, c12 were most abundant and occurred in approximately equal proportions irrespective of vegetable oil used. Total CLA synthesized from sunflower oil was 93.5 +/- 3.5 (wt%) with the two major isomers making up 89 +/- 3.5 (wt%). Candida antartica lipase showed more synthesis activity than Mucor meihie in both organic and solvent-free systems. Analysis of isolated synthesized triglycerides by GC-FID and mass spectrometry showed that DHA, EPA, CLA and linolenic acid were the main fatty acids incorporated into the triglycerides. DHA and EPA were mostly esterified at the sn-2 position.

Thesis (MSc Food Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The distillery industry produces large volumes of waste water with a high organic content throughout the year. These effluents must be treated in some manner before being discharged or recycled in the factory. Several treatment options are in use presently, but they all have disadvantages of some nature, such as long retention times, bad odours or the need for large areas of land. Considerable interest has been shown in the application of anaerobic digestion, especially the UASB design (upflow anaerobic sludge blanket), to treat this high strength waste water. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the efficiency of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) bioreactor using full-strength distillery effluent. The activity of the bacteria in the biogranules was also evaluated by developing an easy and reliable activity method to estimate the general biogas and methanogenic activity and to calibrate this method using different anaerobic granules from different sources. The influence of high strength distillery effluent on the anaerobic digestion process was investigated using a mesophilic lab-scale UASB bioreactor. During the experimental study, the organic loading rate (OLR) was gradually increased from 2.01 to 30.00 kgCOD.m-3.d-1, and simultaneously, the substrate pH was gradually lowered from 7.0 to 4.7. It was found that at an OLR of 30.00 kgCOD. m-3.d-1,the pH, alkalinity and biogas production stabilised to average values of 7.8, 6 000 mg.l-1 and 18.5 I.d-1 respectively. An average COD removal> 90% was found indicating excellent bioreactor stability. The low substrate pH holds considerable implications in terms of operational costs, as neutralisation of the biorector substrate is no longer necessary. The accumulation of fine solids present in the distillery substrate was found at the higher OLR's and resulted in the granular bed increasing with subsequent biomass washout and a lowering in efficiency parameters. However, a possible pre-treatment filtration of these fine solids would eliminate this problem. The success of the upflow anaerobic sludge bed (UASB) process is mainly due to the capability of retaining the active biomass in the reactor. Over the years, several methods have been developed to characterise and quantify sludge activity but each has advantages and disadvantages. There is thus an increasing need for a rapid method to evaluate the activity of the granular biomass. The activity method of Owen et al. (1979) as adapted by Lamb (1995), was thus evaluated in terms of efficiency and applicability in determining the activity of granular samples. The method was found to be inaccurate as well as time consuming and it was thus modified. Results obtained with the modified assay method were found to be more accurate and the impact of the different test substrates (glucose, lactate, acetate and formate) on activity, was more evident. The activity of seven different anaerobic granules, was subsequently evaluated. Biogas (Ss) and methanogenic (SM) activity was not measured in volume of gas produced per unit COD converted or volatile suspended solids (VSS), but as tempo of gas production (ml.h-1) in a standardised basic growth medium. The activity data obtained were also displayed as bar charts and "calibration scales". This illustrative depiction of activity data gave valuable information about population dynamics as well as possible substrate inhibition. The "calibration scales" can also be used to group the general biogas (Ss) and methanogenic activities (SM) of any new biogranule relative to active (O-type) and inactive (W-type) anaerobic granules, providing that the same method of activity testing is used. The "calibration scales" can thus be used to give a fast indication of how the activity value of one sample relates to the activity values of other granules, even when using different test substrates. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die stokery industrie produseer groot hoeveelhede afvalwater, wat hoë ladings van organiese materiaal gedurede die hele jaar bevat. Hierdie afvalwater moet op een of ander manier behandel word voordat dit gestort of vir hergebruik aangewend kan word. Daar is tans verskeie behandelingsmetodes wat gebruik kan word, maar elk het sy eie tekortkominge soos bv. lang retensie tye, onaangename reuke of die behoefte aan groot stukke oop grond. Groot belangstelling is getoon vir die gebruik van anaerobiese vertering, en meer spesifiek die "uflow anaerobic sludge blanket" UASB bioreaktor vir die behandeling van stokery uitvloeisels. Die doel van die studie was dus om die algehele effektiwiteit van 'n UASB bioreaktor, wat onverdunde stokery uitvloeisel behandel, te evalueer. Die methanogene- en algehele aktiwiteit van die bakterië in die biogranules was ook ge-evalueer deurdat 'n maklike en betroubare aktiwiteitsmetode omtwikkel is, waarna hierdie metode ook toegepas was op 'n reeks van verskillende tipe biogranules. Die invloed van volsterkte stokery uitvloeisel op die anaerobiese verteringsprosesse was ondersoek met die gebruik van 'n mesofiele laboratoriumskaal UASB bioreaktor. Gedurende die eksperimentele studie, was die organiese ladingstempo (OLT) verhoog van 2.01 na 30.00 kgCSB.m-3.d-1 (CSB = chemiese suurstof behoefte) met die gelyktydige verlaging in die pH van die bioreaktorsubstraat van 7.0 na 4.7. Dit was vasgestel dat met 'n OLT van 30.00 kgCSB.m-3.d-1, die pH, alkaliniteit en biogas geproduseer, gestabiliseer het na gemiddelde waardes van 7.8, 6000 mg.-1 en 18.5l.d-1 , respektiewelik, sowel as 'n gemiddelde CSB verwydering van> 90%. Al hierdie waardes dui uitstekende bioreaktor stabiliteit aan. Die lae bioreaktorsubstraat pH kan van groot waarde wees vir die industrie, aangesien neutralisering van die uitvloeisel nie meer nodig is nie en kan sodoende die operasionele koste van die proses verlaag. Die konsentrering van fyn opgeloste soliedes in die bioreaktor by hoë OLT's, kan egter problematies raak, aangesien dit die granule-bed kan vergroot en veroorsaak dat van die biomassa uitspoel en kan verlore gaan. Die verlies van aktiewe biomassa kan die effektiwiteitsparameters negatief beinvloed, maar die plasing van 'n filterings stap voor die verterings stap, behoort hierdie probleem op te los. The sukses van die UASB-stelsel rus op die versekering dat die aktiewe biomassa in die reaktor behoue bly. Oor die jare was daar 'n verskeidenheid van aktiwiteitstoetsings-metodes ontwikkel, elk met sy eie nadele. Daar bestaan dus nog steeds 'n groot behoefte vir die daarstelling van 'n aktiwiteitstoetsings-metode wat vinnig en maklik is om uittevoer. Die aktiwiteitstoetsings-metode van Owen et al. (1979) wat deur Lamb (1995) aangepas is, was in terme van sy effektiwiteit en toepaslikheid ten opsigte van die gebruik daarvan vir aktiwiteitstoetsing vir biogranules, ge-evalueer. Dit is bevind dat die metode onakkuraat sowel as tydsrowend was en gevolglik dus aangepas. Die aangepaste metode het meer akkurate resultate gelewer en die impak van die verskillende toetssubstrate (glukose, laktaat, asetaat en formaat) op die granules het ook meer duidelik na vore gekom. Gevolglik was die aktiwiteit van sewe verskillende anaerobiese biogranules ondersoek. Die eenheid waarin atiwiteitsresultate aangegee is, was nie in volume gas geproduseer per eenheid CSB verwyder of per hoeveelheid gesuspendeerde vlugtige vetsure in die biomassa nie, maar as tempo van biogas (S8)- of metaan (SM)produksie (ml.h-1). Die data wat op hierdie wyse bekom was, is gebruik om staafdiagramme sowel as "kalibrasie skale" daar te stel. Hierdie illustrerende wyse om aktiwiteitsdata uit te beeld verskaf waardevolle informasie ten opsigte van die interaksies tussen die verskillende populasies in die granule en kan ook die aanwesigheid van moontlike substraat inhibisie aandui. Die "Kalibrasie skale" kan ook gebruik word om die algehele (SB) en methanogene (SM)aktiwiteite van einge nuwe biogranule vinnig te klassifiseer ten op sigte van 'n aktiewe (O-tipe) en 'n minder aktiewe (W-tipe) anaerobiese granules, mits dieselfde metode gebruik word om die aktiwiteits data te bekom.

Thesis (MSc Food Sc )--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The focus of this study was the development of food products produced from the neck flesh of Cape hake (Merluccius capensis) as a means of adding value to hake heads. The product prototypes that have been developed include curried fish chowder (packaged in stand-up pouches), fish spread (packaged in plastic casings) and Chakalaka hake (packaged in both cans and retortabie pouches). A formula for fish stock, which was used as a base ingredient in the three product prototypes, has also been standardised. Shelf life testing was regarded an essential part of the development processes for the refrigerated product prototypes i.e. the curried fish chowder and the fish spread. Shelf life determinations involved microbiological testing based on set microbiological standards as well as sensory monitoring and pH testing. Proximate chemical- and mineral analyses were performed on freeze-dried samples of the developed product prototypes. The efficiency of the antimicrobial peptides enterocin 1071 A and 1071 B, as biological preservatives, versus that of conventional artificial preservatives was evaluated in the fish spread prototype. Three batches of fish spread were prepared: one containing the enterocin crude extract; the second a combination of sodium benzoate and potassium sorbate, while the third batch containing no preservatives served as the control. Microbiological- and histamine tests coupled with organoleptic monitoring and pH testing were carried out over a 21-day period. It was concluded that although enterocins 1071A and 1071B had some preserving effect in the fish spread, the artificial preservative combination was the superior preserving agent. However, neither the biological preservatives nor the artificial preservative combination succeeded in providing a satisfactory shelf life. The preserving agents used in this study were however not necessarily included at optimum levels and higher levels could possibly lead to an improved shelf life. The influence of two processing temperatures [121°C (249.8°F) and 116°C (240.8°F)] and two food container types (retortable pouch and can) on the sensory quality characteristics of the Chakalaka hake-prototype was investigated. The results indicated that the shorter processing time obtained with a higher processing temperature resulted in a product of better sensory quality. The sensory quality characteristics of Chakalaka hake processed in cans at 121°C were closest to that considered desirable for the product. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die fokus van hierdie studie was die ontwikkeling van voedselprodukte geproduseer uit die nekvleis van stokvis (Merluccius capensis) met die doeI om waarde by stokviskoppe te voeg. Die volgende produk-prototipes is ontwikkel: 'n dik vissop met 'n kerriegeur (verpak in regopstaande sakkies), 'n vissmeer (verpak in plastiekomhulsels) en Chakalaka hake (verpak beide in blikkies en retortbestande sakkies). 'n Formule vir visaftreksel, wat as 'n basis-bestanddeel in die drie produk-prototipes gebruik is, is ook gestandaardiseer. Rakleeftydstudies het 'n belangrike deel van die ontwikkelingsprosesse van die verkoelde produk-prototipes, d.i. die dik vissop en die vissmeer, uitgemaak, Rakleeftydbepalings het mikrobiologiese toetsing, gebaseer op vasgestelde mikrobiologiese standaarde, sowel as die monitor van sensoriese eienskappe en pH metings behels. Proksimale chemiese- en mineraal analises is uitgevoer op gevriesdroogde monsters van die ontwikkelde produk-prototipes. Die effektiwiteit van die antimikrobiese peptiede enterosien 1071 A en 1071 B, as biologiese preserveermiddels, is ondersoek in vergelyking met dit van konvensionele kunsmatige preserveermiddels in die vissmeer-prototipe. Drie mengsels vissmeer is berei waarvan die eerste enterosien kru-ekstrak bevat het; die tweede 'n kombinasie van natrium bensoaat en kalium sorbaat, terwyl 'n derde mengsel geen preserveermiddels bevat het nie en gedien het as kontrole. Mikrobiologiese- en histamien toetse is gelyklopend met organoleptiese monitering en pH metings oor 'n tydperk van 21 dae op monsters van die drie vissmeermengsels uitgevoer. Die ondersoek het getoon dat enterosien 1071 A en 1071 B wel 'n mate van bederfwering in die vissmeer meegebring het, maar dat die kunsmatige preserveermiddelkombinasie 'n beter preserveringseffek gehad het in die produk. Nie die biologiese preserveermiddels óf die kunsmatige preserveermiddelkombinasie kon 'n bevredigende rakleeftyd teweegbring nie. Die preserveermiddels in hierdie studie is egter nie noodwendig in optimale hoeveelhede gebruik nie en hoër vlakke kan moontlik tot 'n verbeterde rakleeftyd lei. Die effek van twee prosesseringstemperature [121 °C (249.8°F) en 116°C (240.8°F)], sowel as twee verpakkingstipes (retortbestande sakkie en blik), op die sensoriese kwaliteitseienskappe van die 'Chakalaka hake' -prototipe is ondersoek. Die resultate het aangedui dat die korter prosesseringstyd verkry met 'n hoër prosesseringstemperatuur, gelei het tot 'n produk van beter sensoriese gehalte. Die sensoriese kwaliteitseienskappe van 'Chakalaka hake' geprosesseer in blikke by 121°C was die naaste aan dit wat beskou word as gewens vir die produk.

Thesis (MScAgric)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Cape hake (Merluccius capensis and M. paradoxus) is commercially the most important trawl-caught fish off the South African, coastline and due to current intensive fish processing procedures Cape hake contributes the most to the total fishwaste production. Besides its commercial importance fish is also regarded as one of the single most important consumable natural resources, either in the raw or frozen form. Most of South Africa's commercially trawled demersal fish has already been partially cleaned (i.e. headed and gutted) before landing with non-marketable bycatch and hake-waste normally disposed of as discards, resulting in a waste of a potential protein source. This study was thus aimed at fulfilling several objectives namely: observing the current large-scale commercial Cape hake harvesting procedure; constructing prediction models for several morphological parameters (whole hake mass, headed & gutted hake mass, hake head mass, hake head length, hake head breadth and hake head height) of Cape hake (Merluccius ssp.), using whole hake length as the independent variable; and determining the chemical composition (moisture, protein, fat, ash, macro and trace elements) of several hake head sections (clean head, neck flesh, tongue, tongue cartilage, jaw, gills, heart, intestines, gut, kidney, kidney & kidney bone and gut & gall); determining the effect that storage has on the fatty acid profile of both the clean head and neck flesh sections. The results obtained would supply necessary data required for techno-economic investigations in the use of hake heads. For each of the six prediction models constructed, there was an increase in the variance of the data points of categories 3 (64-80 cm) and 4 (>80 cm) as opposed to categories 1 (30-46 cm) and 2 (47-63 cm). This could be attributed to a smaller sample set for both categories 3 and 4 or due to an expected increase in the variance when investigating larger biological samples. There was also a clustering of data in the three areas for each prediction model namely, within category 1 and across categories 2 and 3 and 3 and 4. This emphasised the latitudinal stratification of the Cape hake population by age, hence their stratification by size. The prediction models constructed for both boat trips 2 and 3 differed significantly (p<0.01) from that of boat trip 1, with the exception of the hake head length (cm) prediction model. The constructed prediction models, for each of the three respective boat trips, showed good predictive abilities as was indicated by the low Mean Square Error (MSE) values for the test sets, and high Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) values. These prediction models can be used in the fishing industry with confidence for Cape hake within the time frame each respective boat trip was carried out. The neck flesh could be regarded as the most important concerning chemical composition whereas the jaw could be seen as the most important when one considers mineral content. This therefore means that the jaw section, once appropriately processed is a potential Ca, Na and Fe source for supplementing diets of people suffering from a Ca, Na or Fe deficient diet. With regard to chemical status the neck flesh section is seen as a good potential source of both protein and fat, which could be attributed to the fact that hake muscle constitutes a major portion of this section. This section could thus be used to supplement the protein and fat of an existing food product, which is protein and fat deficient for people suffering from a protein and fat deficient diet. Similarly, a market could be created for the production of an economical food product with the neck flesh section being the main ingredient. Once this have been accomplished, fishing vessels may be persuaded to retain their Cape hake fish-waste for further processing due to the value of the prepared food products and thereby maintain profitability while abiding to governmental law. In conclusion non-government scientists should have more input in the decision-making process concerning matters affecting South Africa's marine biodiversity in order for future key policy and legislation drafts to be effective. Improvement of current fish preservation techniques and the known chemical composition of currently discarded material will result in informed decisions of future matters concerning its disposal. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Kaapse stokvis (Merluccius capensis en M. paradoxus) is kommersieel Suid-Afrika se belangrikste vis spesie. Aangesien die Suid-Afrikaanse visprosesseringsbedryf baie intensief is, dra die Kaapse stokvis verwerkingsindustrie die grootste gedeelte by tot die totale visafval produksie. Die meeste van Suid-Afrika se visvangste word gedeeltelik skoongemaak voor landing terwyl nie-kommersiële byvangste en visafval gewoonlik oorboord gegooi word tydens die vangproses. Dit lei tot die vermorsing van 'n potensïele proteïen bron. Hierdie studie was dus gemik om: die huidige grootskaalse kommersiële Kaapse stokvis visvangsproses waar te neem; voorspellingsmodelle vir verskeie morfologiese parameters (heel vis massa, vis massa sonder kop en binnedele, stokvis kop massa, stokvis kop lengte, stokvis kop breedte en stokvis kop hoogte) vir Kaapse stokvis (Merluccius ssp.) te ontwikkel deur die hele lengte van die vis te gebruik as die onafhanklike veranderlike; die chemiese samestelling (vog, proteïen, vet, as, makro en spoor elemente) van verskillende dele van die viskop (skoonkop, nekweefsel, tong, tong kraakbeen, kaak, kiewe, hart, ingewand, derm, nier, nier & nierbeen en derm & gal); sowel as die effek van opberging op die vetsuurprofiel van beide die skoonkop en nekweefsel dele van die Kaapse stokvis kop. Hierdie resultate sal dan gebruik word vir die tegnies-ekonomies ondersoek in die gebruik van Kaapse stokvis koppe. Vir elk van die ses voorspellingsmodelle ontwikkel, was daar 'n vermeerdering in die variansie van die datapunte vir kategorieë 3 (64-80 cm) en 4 (>80 cm) teenoor kategorieë 1 (30-46 cm) en 2 (47-63 cm). Dit kan moontlik wees as gevolg van die kleiner monster trekking vir beide kategorieë 3 en 4 of as gevolg van verwagte toename in variansie wanneer groter biologiese monsters ondersoek word. Daar was ook 'n groepering van data in drie plekke vir elke voorspellingsmodel naamlik; binne in kategorieë 1 en oor kategorieë 2 en 3 en 3 en 4. Dit beklemtoon die geografiese breedte van die Kaapse stokvis populasie op grond van ouderdom, en dus die geografiese breedte op grond van grootte. Die voorspellingsmodelle ontwikkel vir beide die tweede en derde bootvangs het betekenisvol verskil (p<0.01) van die eerste bootvangs, behalwe die vir die stokvis kop lengte (cm) voorspellingsmodel. Die voorspellingsmodelle vir elk van die bootvangste het goeie voorspellingsvermoë getoon wat bewys is deur die lae Gemiddelde Kwadraat Fout waardes vir toetsgroepe en hoë Pearson's korrelasie koeffisiënt (r) waardes. Hierdie voorspellingsmodelle wat ontwikkel is, kan dus met vertroue in die Kaapse stokvis visvangsbedryf gebruik word mits dit ooreenstem met die periode waarin elke bootvangs uitgevoer was. Die nekweefsel gedeelte is die mees belangrikste met betrekking tot chemiese samestelling en die kaak die belangrikste in terme van minerale samestelling van die verskeie viskop dele. Die kaak is dus, as dit voldoende geprosesseer word, 'n goeie potensïele bron van Ca, Na en Fe en kan dus gebruik word om die dieet van mense wat 'n gebrek het aan hierdie minerale aan te vul. Met betrekking tot die chemiese samestelling van die nekweefsel gedeelte kan dit beskou word as 'n goeie potensiële bron van beide proteïen en vet, wat toegeskryf kan word aan die feit dat spierweefsel 'n groot deel uitmaak van hierdie viskop gedeelte. Hierdie viskop gedeelte sal dus uitstekend wees om die proteïen- en vetinhoud van 'n voedselproduk wat van nature 'n lae proteïen- en vetinhoud het te verhoog en hierdie produk sou dan geteiken word op daardie gedeelte van die gemeenskap wat 'n proteïen en vet tekort in hul dieet het. As dit eers alles in plek is, dan sal die visvangs bedryf hul Kaapse stokvis afval behou vir verdere prosessering deurdat dit gebruik word om die voedingsinhoud van bestaande voedsel soorte sal verbeter en terselfdertyd sal hulle aan wetgewing voldoen. Gevolglik sal nie-regerings navorsers meer betrokke moet wees by die besluitnemingsproses met betrekking tot sake wat die Suid-Afrikaanse mariene lewe affekteer en wat toekomstige wetgewing meer effektief sal maak. Die verbetering van huidige vis preserveringstegnieke gepaardgaande met die kennis van die chemiese samestelling van die Kaapse stokvis koppe sal lei na beter toekomstige besluite oor die afset daarvan.

CAPES / A busca por substâncias capazes de agir na defesa vegetal é necessária para o manejo de doenças, especialmente na vitivinicultura orgânica. Na primeira parte dos testes, avaliou-se as concentrações 0; 3; 6; 9 e 12% de extrato aquoso de bagaço de uva (EABU), tratamentos padrões calda bordalesa (CB) 1% e Saccharomyces cerevisae (SC) (1 mL L-1) no controle do míldio (Plasmopara viticola) em discos de folhas e em plantas de videira, além da indução de β-1-3-glucanases e quitinase em videira e síntese de fitoalexinas em mesocótilos de sorgo. A composição química do bagaço de uva e o perfil cromatográfico do EABU a 12% foram determinados com objetivo de identificar compostos com possível ação contra míldio. O EABU aplicado em discos foliares, na concentração de 12%, reduziu em mais de 50% a severidade do míldio. Em condições de campo, o extrato foi eficiente de forma análoga ao tratamento padrão CB. Além disso, induziu a atividade das enzimas de defesa β-1-3- glucanases e quitinase 24 e 48 horas após o inicio dos primeiros sintomas da doença. A síntese de fitoalexinas também foi resposta ao tratamento com EABU. Os minerais identificados fósforo, enxofre, potássio, cálcio e magnésio e os compostos fenólicos ácidos gálico, cafeíco e vanílico e; os flavonóides catequina e epicatequina podem ter agido na defesa contra o míldio da videira. Na segunda parte deste trabalho, empregou-se a canola na forma de extrato aquoso (EAC) no controle do míldio da videira e como saches de farinha dessa brássica no controle do mofo cinzento in vivo e in vitro em Botrytis cinerea. As concentrações do EAC foram às mesmas do experimento com anterior. E, em saches utilizou-se 0; 0,8; 1,7; 2,55 e 3,4g. Constatou-se, nos dois ciclos de cultivo da videira, que o extrato prejudicou o desenvolvimento do míldio controlando entre 20 a 30% em relação ao tratamento testemunha, na concentração de 6% de extrato. A farinha de canola, possivelmente liberou compostos voláteis em todas as concentrações capazes de reduzir o crescimento micelial, produção de conídios de B. cinerea e o mofo cinzento em bagas de uva cv. Rubi. / The search for substances capable of acting in the defense of plants is a necessity for the management of diseases in the vitiviniculture organic. In the first part of the tests, 0 concentrations were evaluated; 3; 6; 9 and 12% aqueous extract of grape marc (AEGM), standard treatments Bordeaux mixture (BM) 1% and Saccharomyces cerevisae (SC) (1 mL L-1) in the control of mildew (Plasmopara viticola) in leaf and in vine plants, as well as the induction of β-1,3-glucanases and chitinase in vines and the synthesis of phytoalexins in sorghum mesocotyls. The chemical composition of the grape marc and the chromatographic profile of the AEGM at 12% were measured with a purpose of identification with anti-mildew action. The AEGM applied in foliar discs in the concentration of 12% reduced in more than 50% the severity of the mildew. In field conditions, the extract was efficient in a manner analogous to the CB standard. In addition, it induced the activity of the defense enzymes β-1-3- glucanases and chitinase 24 and 48 hours after the onset of the disease's first symptoms and phytoalexin synthesis. The minerals identified as phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium and magnesium and the phenolic compounds galic, caffeic and vanillic acids; the catechin and epicatechin flavonoids. In the second part of this work, the Brassica napus in the form of aqueous extract (AEB) without control of the media and as sachets (0; 0.8; 1.7; 2.55 and 3.4g), releasing volatile compounds without raw carbon control in vivo and in vitro is used. As extract concentrations as their previous works. It was verified that the aqueous extract of B. napus harmed the development of mildew by controlling between 20 and 30% in relation to the control treatment, when 6% of extract was used in the two cycles of grapevine cultivation. Canola meal possibly released volatile compounds at all concentrations capable of reducing B. cinerea mycelial growth and conidia production as gray mold on cv. Rubi.

O queijo de porco é um embutido cárneo de origem europeia elaborado a partir de subprodutos do abate suíno. É um produto bastante apreciado no sul do Brasil que está cada vez mais inserido no mercado, todavia ainda não possui regulamentação oficial. Este estudo teve como objetivo apresentar a caracterização físico-química do queijo de porco em uma indústria do oeste catarinense fiscalizada pela Companhia Integrada de Desenvolvimento Agrícola de Santa Catarina e avaliar 10 diferentes marcas buscando a relação entre a composição química e a análise do perfil de textura (TPA). Assim, a composição química, valor energético, nitrito total, oxidação lipídica e parâmetros físicos (cor e textura) foram avaliados. O produto apresentou grande variabilidade nos teores de umidade, proteína e lipídios devido às diferentes formulações, processamentos e a características intrínsecas e extrínsecas da matéria-prima. O uso de miúdos proporcionou maiores teores de colesterol e ferro, e o alto teor de colágeno foi responsável pelos resultados da força de cisalhamento (7,84 ± 1,68 N). Apresentou maior quantidade de sódio, devido ao uso de aditivos, porém teores de cálcio compatíveis com outros embutidos. Houve predominância de ácidos graxos poli-insaturados, e razão ácidos graxos poli-insaturados/ácidos graxos saturados mais favorável que outros embutidos da categoria. O nitrito garantiu efeitos conservantes e assim, baixos níveis de oxidação do produto foram observados. A alta atividade de água e pH 6,5 mostraram que o produto é suscetível a multiplicação de microrganismos patogênicos e necessita de resfriamento para sua conservação. Sua coloração amarronzada ocorreu devido ao cozimento e à formação de metamioglobina. Houve forte correlação positiva do colágeno com atributos da TPA, especialmente para a mastigabilidade (r = 0,855). O uso da análise de cluster hierárquico e análise dos componentes principais possibilitou a formação de três grupos baseados na quantidade de colágeno e nos atributos de textura, especialmente dureza, gomosidade e mastigabilidade. / Headcheese is a meat sausage originated from Europe made from hog slaughter by-products. It is a much appreciated product in the South of Brazil which is increasingly established in the market, however it does not have official regulations yet. This study aimed to present the physicochemical characterization of headcheese in a western Santa Catarina industry supervised by Companhia Integrada de Desenvolvimento Agrícola de Santa Catarina and assess 10 different brands to find the relationship between chemical composition and texture profile analysis (TPA). Thus, the chemical composition, energy value, total nitrite, lipid oxidation and physical parameters (color and texture) were evaluated. The product exhibited great variability in moisture content, lipid and protein because the different formulations, processing and intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics of raw material. The utilization of offal provided higher cholesterol and iron levels, and the high content of collagen was accountable for the shear force responses (7.84 ± 1.68 N). The product showed higher amount of sodium, due to the use of additives, but calcium levels were compatible with other sausages. There was a predominance of polyunsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids/saturated fatty acids ratio was more favorable than other sausage in the same category. Nitrite assured preservation effects and thus lower product levels of oxidation were observed. The high Water Activity and pH 6.5 showed that the product is susceptible to growth of pathogens and requires cooling for preservation. Its brownish occurred due to cooking and production of metmyoglobin. There was a strong positive correlation between collagen and attributes of TPA, especially for chewiness (r = 0.855). The use of Hierarchical Cluster Analysis and Principal Component Analysis were able to separate three groups based on the amount of collagen and texture attributes, especially hardness, gumminess and chewiness.

CAPES / As lipases microbianas têm destaque comercial por apresentarem elevada especificidade e estabilidade em suas reações, permitindo assim, que a indústria de lipases seja composta por diversos segmentos, englobando a indústria alimentícia, farmacêutica, têxtil, tratamento de efluentes e reutilização de resíduos agrícolas. No presente estudo os subprodutos farelo de soja e okara foram avaliados quanto aos aspectos físico-químicos e morfológicos e tais características sugerem seu uso potencial como substrato em fermentações sólidas para a produção de lipase extracelular. Buscando a produção de enzimas lipolíticas a partir destes substratos, foram avaliadas quatro cepas selvagens de fungos filamentosos através de fermentações no estado sólido. O farelo de soja foi a biomassa que demonstrou maior potencial como substrato para a produção de lipase sem suplementação nutricional do meio. O isolado fúngico S4 (Penicillium sp) apresentou o maior potencial lipolítico entre os fungos avaliados. Um delineamento composto central rotacional 23 demonstrou que os parâmetros de cultivo concentração de conídios e umidade são variáveis que influenciam a produção da enzima pelo fungo. O tempo de cultivo não demonstrou ter efeito significativo sobre a produção da lipase e maior produção de lipase (73,85 U.L-1) foi obtida quando usando inóculo na concentração de 105 esporos / mL e meio de cultivo com umidade de 54%. A lipase bruta demonstrou condições ótimas de atividade a 35 ºC em pH 8,0 e foi ativa na faixa de pH entre 6 e 11. Apresentou atividade relativa superior a 50% entre as temperaturas 20 ºC e 40 ºC (30 minutos de aquecimento) e manteve 50 % de sua atividade quando aquecida a 40 ºC por 60 minutos. Os íons Ca2+, K+, Cu2+ (2 mM) e I- apresentaram efeito ativador sobre a atividade lipolítica da enzima, diferentemente do íon Fe2+, que apresentou forte inibição. A enzima bruta foi sensível à presença dos solventes orgânicos acetona, DMSO, metanol e propanol e foi ativada pelo solvente hexano. / Microbial lipases gain great commercial prominence because they have high specificity and stability in their reactions, allowing the lipase industry to be composed of several segments, such as food, pharmaceutical, textile, wastewater treatment and reuse of agricultural waste. Seeking for the production of lipolytic enzymes from these substrates, four wild strains of filamentous fungi was assessed by solid state fermentations. The soybean meal biomass showed higher potential as substrate for lipase production without nutritional supplementation of medium. The fungal isolated S4 (Penicillium sp) had the highest lipolytic potential among the evaluated fungi. A rotational central composite design 23 demonstrated that culture parameters spore concentration and moisture are variables that affect enzyme production by the fungus. The cultivation time demonstrated no significant effect on lipase production and increased production of lipase (73,85 UL-1) was obtained when using inoculum at a concentration of 105 spores / mL and culture medium with 54% moisture. Crude lipase showed optimum conditions of activity at 35 ° C at pH 8.0 and it was active in the pH range between 6 and 11. Enzymatic extract showed relative activity of 50% among the temperature of 20 ° C and 40 ° C (30 minutes of heating) and kept 50% of its activity when heated at 40 ° C for 60 minutes. The ions Ca2+, K+, Cu2+ (2 mM) and I- showed activating effect on the lipolytic activity of the enzyme, unlike ion Fe2+, which showed strong inhibition. The crude enzyme was sensitive to the presence of organic solvents as acetone, DMSO, methanol, propanol and the enzyme was activated by the hexane solvent.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This paper aims to evaluate the daily milk production (DMP) and the composition and profile of fatty acidsin milk and the economy of concentrated supplement, as well as the income, the sensory characteristics and fatty acid profile of MinasFrescal cheese from cows on pasture receiving supplement containing peanut pie. We used eight lactating Holstein x Gir crossbred cows distributed in two 4x4 Latin square designs (four animals x four treatments x four periods). The experimental treatments consisted of four supplements containing the levels: 0; 33; 66; and 100% peanut pie (PP) in the dry matter of concentrate to replace soy bran (SB). There was no difference (P>0.05) for DMP and for contents of fat, protein, lactose, total solids, nonfat dry, urea N, and for the fat/protein between treatments. The levels of fatty acids C8:0; C10:0; C11:0; C12:0; and C18:2c9t11 reduced (P<0.05) with the increasing participation of PP in place of SB. For the other levels of fatty acids, there was no difference (P>0.05) among treatments. There was a reduction of R$70.00 per ton in the cost of the supplement, with 100% replacement. The yield of Minas Frescal cheese and their fat contents were similar (P>0.05) among treatments. However, when comparing the cheese subjected or not to thermal processing, we observed that it took an average of 6.7 and 5.9 liters of milk to process one kilogram of cheese from raw and pasteurized milk, respectively (P<0.05). There was no interaction (P>0.05) between treatment and type of cheese (pasteurized or unpasteurized) for any of the identified fatty acids. The levels of capric, lauric, myristic and palmitic acids decreased linearly (P<0.05) with increasing participation of PP in supplement concentrate. On the other hand, arachidic, lignoceric, palmitoleic and elaidic acids increased linearly (P<0.05) with the increased levels of peanut pie in the supplement concentrate. The other fatty acids showed no difference compared to the treatments studied (P>0.05). In general, cheese samples showed good acceptance, averaging between 4 (unspecified) and 5 (liked). Thus, PP may be recommended to compose the supplement concentrate in lactating cows by up to 100% replacement of SB. / Objetivou-se avaliar aprodução de leite diária (PLD) a composição e o perfil de ácidos graxos do leite e a economicidade do suplemento concentrado, assim como,o rendimento, as características sensoriais e o perfil de ácidos graxos do queijo Minas Frescal de vacas a pasto recebendo suplemento contendo torta de amendoim. Utilizou-se8 vacas mestiças Holandês x Gir em lactação, distribuídas em duplo quadrado latino 4x4 (quatro animais x quatro tratamentos x quatro períodos). Os tratamentos experimentais consistiram de quatro suplementos contendo os níveis: 0; 33; 66; e 100% de torta de amendoim (TA) na matéria seca do concentrado em substituição ao farelo de soja (FS).Não houve diferença (P>0,05) para PLD e para os teores de gordura, proteína,lactose, sólidos totais, extrato seco desengordurado, N-uréico e, ainda, a relação gordura/proteína entre os tratamentos. Os níveis dos ácidos graxos C8:0, C10:0, C11:0, C12:0 e C18:2c9t11reduziram (P<0,05) com a participação crescente da TA em substituição ao FS. Para os demais níveis de ácidos graxos, não foi observada diferença (P>0,05) entre os tratamentos. Houve uma redução de R$70,00 a tonelada no custo do suplemento, com 100% de substituição. Os rendimentos dos queijos Minas Frescal e os teores de gordura dos mesmos foram similares (P>0,05) entre os tratamentos. No entanto, ao comparar os queijos submetidos, ou não, ao processo térmico, observou-se que foram necessários em média 6,7 e 5,9 litros de leite para processar um quilograma de queijo a partir do leite cru e pasteurizado, respectivamente (P<0,05).Não houve interação (P>0,05) entre tratamento e tipo de queijo (pasteurizado ou não pasteurizado) para nenhum dos ácidos graxos identificados.Os teores de ácidocáprico, láurico, mirístico e palmítico reduziram linearmente (P<0,05) com o aumento na participação da TA no suplemento concentrado. Por outro lado os ácidos araquídico, lignocérico, palmitoléico e elaídico aumentaram linearmente (P<0,05) com o aumento dos níveis de torta de amendoim no suplemento concentrado. Os demais ácidos graxos não apresentaram diferença em relação aos tratamentos estudados (P>0,05). Em geral, as amostras de queijo apresentaram boa aceitação, commédias variando entre 4 (indiferente) e 5 (gostei). Sendo assim, a TA pode ser indicada para compor o suplemento concentrado de vacas em lactação em até 100% de substituição do FS.

[pt] O pó de aciaria (fração Fina-F e fração Grossa-G) gerado no sistema de despoeiramento à seco dos gases de exaustão do conversor LD, e o pó de alto forno-AF recuperado pelo sistema de tratamento de gases do setor de redução (coletor de gases), têm papel relevante entre os materiais secundários gerados nos vários elos da cadeia produtiva de uma siderúrgica integrada, seja pelas quantidades produzidas, seja por suas composições. Por serem portadores principalmente de unidades de ferro e carbono e algumas vezes zinco, esses resíduos são sempre alvo de iniciativas tecnológicas que objetivem recuperá-los ou reciclá-los. Além disso, os materiais particulados gerados pelo sistema de despoeiramento a seco, diferentemente dos à úmido, ainda carecem de estudos aprofundados para suas reciclagens. Embora antiga, a briquetagem atualmente vem se tornando uma tecnologia cada vez mais importante entre os processos de aglomeração. Assim, nesta Tese foi estudado, numa primeira etapa, a viabilidade de fabricação dos chamados briquetes F-G simples, constituídos apenas pelos pós Finos e Grossos, nas proporções percentuais de 50-50 e 70-30, respectivamente, e o exame teórico e experimental de seus usos como carga ferrosa nos processos de redução e como materiais alternativos às sucatas e pelotas, quando adicionados ao aço líquido do conversor LD para o controle de sua temperatura. Na fabricação dos briquetes F-G simples, também buscou-se testar os aglomerantes cimento ARI e melaço de cana de açúcar, isoladamente ou quando misturados, atendendo às relações água/cimento de 0,5 e água/melaço de 0,7. O processo experimental de cura a frio dos aglomerados se estendeu até 28 dias. A resistência à compressão obtida em prensa hidráulica instrumentada foi o principal parâmetro para avaliar a qualidade mecânica dos briquetes. A metodologia experimental envolveu a técnica do planejamento fatorial, 2(k), níveis (mínimo e máximo), com três variáveis (resíduos, aglomerantes e água). Nos resultados verificou-se que a resistência à compressão dos briquetes F-G simples, usando o binômio cimento-melaço sempre apresentou valores mais elevados do que os briquetes quando aglutinados com as duas substancias isoladamente. Além disso, dentre os aglomerados produzidos os de teores mais elevados de fração Grossa (briquetes 50-50), apresentaram maior resistência mecânica que os briquetes tipo 70-30. Em relação aos efeitos de resfriamento que provocam quando adicionados ao aço liquido, os balanços térmicos mostraram que os briquetes do tipo 70-30 apresentariam melhores índices no controle da temperatura do banho de aço, que os do tipo 50-50. A fim de verificar como se comportariam os briquetes F-G anteriores, quando se adicionava o pó de coletor de AF nas suas constituições como fonte supridora de carbono e apenas o cimento ARI como aglutinante, foram produzidos os denominados briquetes autorredutores, também dos tipos F-G, 50-50 e 70-30. Além da viabilidade de fabricação desses aglomerados, foram determinadas suas qualidades mecânicas e levantadas suas metalizações em ensaios de redução nas temperaturas de 1100 graus Celsius e 1150 graus Celsius. O estudo cinético da autorredução foi realizado avaliando-se o grau de conversão a ferro metálico e examinada a fenomenologia de sua evolução. Os resultados evidenciaram que o grau de conversão metálica cresceu com o aumento da temperatura e com a quantidade da fonte de carbono, que a metalização apresentou uma morfologia final do tipo shell layer e que o modelo cinético testado, tipo reação continua, apresentou uma correlação acima de 99 por cento. Além disso, os balanços de energia mostraram que o efeito de resfriamento imposto ao aço liquido pelos briquetes F-G autorredutores, sempre se mostrou superior aos dos briquetes F-G simples. Adicionalmente, afim de melhor interpretar os resultados obtidos foram realizados testes adicionais, como o de reatividade do coque metalúrgico, via a norma ASTM D5341-99 e por aná / [en] The steel dusts (fine-F and coarse-G fractions) generated in the dry dedusting equipment of the LD converter exhaust system, and in the blast furnace-AF dust collector, play a relevant role among secondary materials generated in the various steps of the integrated steelmaking chain, either by the quantities produced and their compositions. Because they mainly contain iron and carbon units and sometimes zinc in their compositions, actually these wastes are being the target of several technological initiatives, aiming to recover or recycle them. Moreover, the particulate materials generated by the LD dry dedusting system, unlike those collected in the wet system of the same LD processes, still lack in-depth studies for recycling. Nowadays briquetting is increasing in importance among agglomeration processes, mainly due to its feature in treat particulate materials with a wide range of size. This thesis studied, in a first stage, the feasibility of manufacturing the so-called simple F-G briquettes, in the proportions of 50-50 and 70-30, respectively, as well as their theoretically and experimentally possibilities to be charged as a ferrous burden in reduction processes and as an alternative material to the scrap and pellets, when used to control the liquid steel temperature in LD converters. In the manufacture of the simple F-G briquettes, was also tested the binders ARI cement and sugarcane molasses, alone or when mixed, taking into account the water / cement ratio of 0,5 and the water / molasses ratio of 0,7. For the briquettes studied in this research, all cure operations lasted for up to 28 days and the compressive strength parameter obtained to evaluate the mechanical quality of the briquettes. The experimental methodology involved the technique of factorial planning, 2(k) levels (minimum and maximum), with three variables (residues, agglomerates and water). The results showed that the compressive strengths of the simple F-G briquettes, when using the cement-molasses mixture, always achieved higher values than that for briquettes using the cement or molasses separately. Moreover, the higher content of coarser fraction (briquettes 50-50) always leads to higher mechanical resistance than the finer one (70-30). On the other hand, the energy balances showed that the simple F-G briquettes 70-30, have presented the better cooling indexes for the liquid steel temperature control than the 50-50 briquettes. Regarding the second part of the thesis, two types of F-G self-reducing briquettes were also produced, containing stoichiometric and 10 percent excess of BF-collector dusts. After curing, they were tested on compression and reduced in temperatures of 1100 Celsius degrees and 1150 Celsius degrees. The kinetic study of the self-reducing briquettes was carried out evaluating the metallic iron conversion and the metallic iron phenomenology and morphology formation. The results showed: a) that the iron conversion increased as higher the temperature and amount of carbon; b) that the iron metallization presented a shell-layer type morphology and, c) that the continuous-reaction type kinetic model, adjusted very well the experimental reduction results, with a correlation factor above 99 percent. Additionally, in order to better understand the experiment results, the metallurgical coke reactivity was obtained using the ASTM D5341-99 test and the Differential Thermogravimetric analyzes (DTG), as well as confirmed the hydrated water amount in the passivated F and G dusts, also using the DTG methodology. Finally, considering the manufacturing feasibility of the both, simple and self-reducing F-G briquettes, the following could be also marked: I) The use of both briquettes type for liquid steel temperature control in LD converters, as effective alternative materials to scraps and pellets, considering the following comparative cooling indexes: a) 2,1 and 2,4 times the scrap, for the self-reducing briquettes 50-50 and 70-30, respectively, both with 10 percent excess; b) 1,7 and 1,9 times the scrap, for the simple briquettes, 50-50 and 70

Sheep farming is practiced extensively in South Africa for its significant contributions to the livestock, wool and meat industries. The sheep farming sector in the country has approximately 13,800 farmers with commercial and communal sheep farmers making up 58 percent and 42 percent of the entire work force (Directorate of Agricultural Information Services, 2008). An estimate of 28.8 million sheep and flock size ranging between ≤ 50 and ≥ 1800 exist in various South African provinces. Although the national herd size is unevenly distributed provincially most of the herds are found in the Eastern Cape (30 percent) followed by the Northern Cape (25 percent), Free State (20 percent) and the Western Cape (11 percent) respectively (Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2011). Over twenty indigenous and locally developed sheep breeds are managed where about 69 percent of the land area is available for their grazing nation-wide (Campher et al., 1998; Palmer and Ainslie, 2006). Common among the indigenous breeds are the Afrikaner, Blackhead Persian, Blackhead Speckled Persian, Blinkhaar Ronderib, Damara, Karakul, Namaqua Afrikaner, Pedi, Redhead Persian, Redhead Speckled, Swazi and Zulu. The locally developed breeds include Dorper, Van Rooy and Merinos. The local breeds developed from Merinos consist of the Afrino, Dormer, Dohne Merino and South African mutton Merino (Hammond, 2000; Pranisha, 2004; Hinton, 2006; Sorma et al., 2012). All these sheep breeds are best suited for providing by-products such as wool, meat, hide, milk or a combination of products (Dave and Meadowcroft, 1996; Jensen, 2009). The indigenous and locally developed sheep were bred to meet the growing demand for its by-products (Peters et al., 2010). Expectedly, sheep farmers therefore, make use of the products from these sheep as a means of livelihood and sustenance of a viable local society (Cloete and Olivier, 2010).