O neuropeptídeo/hormônio CRF integra respostas de estresse a nível endócrino, imunológico e comportamental dos mamíferos. A atividade neuronal CRFérgica inapropriada pode estar por trás do aparecimento de sintomas associados a transtornos neuropsiquiátricos. Os experimentos apresentados nesta tese descrevem a modulação farmacológica de ligantes de CRF que compõem o sistema CRFérgico em ratos Wistar machos submetidos ao protocolo de estresse por derrota social. A experiência de episódios intermitentes à derrota social prejudicou o comportamento de interação social. Microinjeções de antagonista da proteína ligante de CRF e antagonista (CRF6-33) e antagonista específico do receptor de CRF do tipo 1 (CP316311) no núcleo intersticial da estria terminal, separadamente, restauraram a aproximação social em animais estressados. Esses achados sugerem que o conteúdo de CRF no núcleo intersticial da estria terminal está envolvido na modulação de respostas relacionadas à ansiedade induzidas pelo estresse social. / The CRF neuropeptide/hormone integrates endocrine, immune and behavioral stress responses of mammals. Inappropriate CRFergic neuronal activity may underlie the appearance of symptoms associated with neuropsychiatric disorders. The experiments presented in this dissertation describe the pharmacological modulation of CRF ligands composing the CRFergic system in male Wistar rats submitted to the social defeat stress protocol. The experience of intermittent episodes of social defeat disrupted behaviors of social interaction. Microinjections of an antagonist of CRF binding protein (CRF6-33) and specific antagonist of CRF receptor type 1 (CP316311) in the bed nucleus of stria terminalis, separately, restored the social approach behavior in stressed animals. These findings suggest that the CRF content in the bed nucleus of stria terminalis is involved in the modulation of anxiety-related responses induced by social stress.

O hipercortisolismo ACTH-dependente (HAD), também chamado de doença de Cushing, é uma das endocrinopatias mais comumente diagnosticadas na espécie canina. A sintomatologia clínica ocorre, secundariamente, aos efeitos gliconeogênicos, catabólicos, antiinflamatórios e imunossupressores dos glicocorticóides sobre vários sistemas orgânicos. Há uma marcante predisposição da doença na raça poodle e casos familiais têm sido diagnosticados sugerindo uma causa genética. As alterações moleculares que levam ao desenvolvimento do HAD em cães permanecem indefinidas. Dentre os genes implicados no desenvolvimento dos corticotrofos e na regulação do eixo corticotrófico, destacam-se o Tbx19 e o Crhr1, respectivamente. O Tbx19 é um fator de transcrição obrigatório para a transcrição do gene da proopiomelanocortina (POMC) e para a diferenciação terminal dos corticotrofos. Como está presente, exclusivamente, em corticotrofos normais e adenomatosos, foi proposto seu envolvimento na secreção excessiva de ACTH na doença de Cushing. A presença de CRHR1 nos corticotrofinomas na espécie humana e canina levantou a hipótese da sua participação na tumorigênese hipofisária, promovendo uma estimulação celular prolongada, mesmo na ausência de hormônios hipotalâmicos. Um aumento da expressão do CRHR1 foi demonstrado nos tumores corticotróficos, apesar da secreção autônoma de ACTH e dos níveis portais suprimidos de CRH em pacientes humanos e caninos com doença de Cushing. Os objetivos do presente trabalho foram pesquisar a presença de mutações germinativas nas regiões codificadoras dos genes Tbx19 e Crhr1 em cães com HAD. Para tanto, estudamos 50 cães da raça poodle com hipercortisolismo ACTH-dependente (33 fêmeas e 17 machos), com idade média de 8,71 anos e 50 cães controle da mesma raça (32 fêmeas e 18 machos) com idade superior a 6 anos (média de 9,38 anos) e sem endocrinopatias. O DNA genômico foi extraído e amplificado através da reação de polimerização em cadeia (PCR), utilizando-se oligonucleotídeos (primers) específicos para os genes Tbx19 e Crhr1. Foi identificada uma nova variante alélica tanto no Tbx19 como no Crhr1, ambas não descritas na literatura. No gene Tbx19, a variante p. S343G foi encontrada em dois cães não aparentados, mas também em dois controles normais, sugerindo tratar-se de um novo polimorfismo. Já a variante p. V97M do Crhr1 foi encontrada, em heterozigose em um animal com HAD, porém não foi observada em cem alelos normais. O códon 97 está localizado no domínio extracelular aminoterminal do gene Crhr1, de extrema importância para a ligação com alta afinidade ao ligante. O estudo molecular da estrutura quartenária da proteína mutada, seguido da avaliação da energia de ligação da superfície de contato entre o hormônio e o receptor revelou um rearranjo estrutural com alteração da superfície de contato entre o CRH e o seu receptor CRHR1, resultando em uma energia de ligação 17% superior à do receptor selvagem. Em conclusão, esse estudo não identificou alterações no gene Tbx19 associadas ao hipercortisolismo ACTH-dependente canino, mas por outro lado, identificou pela primeira vez, uma mutação ativadora no Crhr1, provavelmente responsável pelo hipercortisolismo ACTH-dependente em um cão da raça poodle. / The ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism (ADH), also called Cushing\'s disease, is one of the most commonly diagnosed endocrine diseases in dogs. The symptoms occur due to glucocorticoids excess leading to gluconeogenic, catabolic, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects in multiple organs and systems. There is a high incidence of Cushing\'s disease in Poodles and familial disease has been identified suggesting a genetic involvement. The molecular changes that lead to the development of ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism in dogs remain undefined. Among genes implicated in corticotroph development and in corticotropic axis regulation, we would like to point out Tbx19 and Crhr1, respectively. Tbx19 gene is a transcription factor required for transcription of the proopiomelanocortin gene and for terminal differentiation of the corticotroph. Inactivating mutations in that gene are associated with human isolated ACTH deficiency. Since Tbx19 is present exclusively in normal and adenomatous corticotroph cells, its involvement in the secretion of ACTH in Cushing\'s disease was proposed. The presence of CRHR1 in corticotrophinomas in humans and dogs raised the possibility of its involvement in pituitary tumorigenesis, promoting prolonged cell stimulation, even in the absence of hypothalamic hormones. An increased expression of the CRHR1 mRNA was demonstrated in human and canine ACTH-secreting pituitary adenomas, despite the autonomous ACTH secretion and the low portal levels of CRH. The aim of this study was to investigate Tbx19 and Crhr1 coding region mutations in Poodle dogs with ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism. We studied 50 Poodle dogs with ADH (33 females and 17 males) with a mean age of 8.71 years and 50 control dogs of the same breed (32 females and 18 males) older than 6 years (mean 9.38 years) and without endocrinopathies. Genomic DNA was extracted from peripheral blood, amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using specific intronic primers and submitted to automatic sequence. We identified a new allelic variant in the Tbx19 and Crhr1 coding regions. The allelic variant p. S343G in the Tbx19 gene was found in two unrelated dogs, but also in two normal controls, suggesting that this is a new polymorphism. The Crhr1 allelic variant p. V97M was found in heterozygosity in one animal with ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism, but was not observed in one hundred normal alleles. The codon 97 is located in the extracellular amino terminal domain of the Crhr1 and is extremely important for high affinity ligand binding. The molecular analysis of the quaternary structure of normal and mutated proteins, followed by evaluation of the binding energy of the contact surface between the hormone and the receptor showed a structural rearrangement of the mutated protein by changing the contact surface between the CRH and its receptor CRHR1, resulting in a binding energy 17% higher than the wild type. In conclusion, this study did not identify Tbx19 mutations associated with canine ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism, but on the other hand, we first identified a Crhr1 gain-of-function mutation probably responsible for ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism in a Poodle dog of our cohort.

INTRODUÇÃO: O diagnóstico diferencial da síndrome de Cushing (SC) ACTH-dependente é um dos maiores desafios da endocrinologia, devido ao comportamento clínico e laboratorial semelhante de alguns tumores carcinóides com a doença de Cushing (DC). Assim, testes dinâmicos de secreção de ACTH e cortisol têm sido utilizados com o objetivo de identificar respostas que sejam preditivas e específicas no diagnóstico diferencial. O padrão dessas respostas é atribuído à superexpressão de receptores; entretanto, poucos estudos foram realizados para comprovar tal associação. O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar se a secreção de ACTH e cortisol em resposta aos testes do CRH humano (hCRH), da desmopressina, e do peptídeo liberador do GH (GHRP-6) é dependente da magnitude de expressão dos seus respectivos receptores (CRHR1, AVPR1B e GHSR-1a) em amostras de tumores de pacientes portadores da SC ACTH-dependente. CASUÍSTICA E MÉTODOS: Entre 2002 e 2004, foram avaliados 22 pacientes (20 com DC e dois com Secreção Ectópica de ACTH [SEA], carcinóide de pulmão e timo), idade mediana de 32 anos (15-54 anos), sendo 18 do sexo feminino e quatro do sexo masculino, provenientes da Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Os pacientes foram submetidos aos testes do hCRH (100 µg), desmopressina (10 µg) e GHRP-6 (1 µg/kg) com dosagens de ACTH e cortisol e também de GH no caso do GHRP-6. Vinte e um indivíduos controles, pareados por sexo e idade, foram submetidos ao teste do GHRP-6. Durante o ato operatório, fragmentos de tumor foram coletados para posterior extração do RNA total. O estudo da expressão foi feito por meio de PCR quantitativo em tempo real dos genes CRHR1, AVPR1B e GHSR-1a em relação ao GAPDH. Fragmentos de tecidos normais (hipófise, pulmão e timo) procedentes de necropsias foram utilizados como controles. RESULTADOS: Observamos maior expressão de GHSR-1a nos pacientes responsivos ao GHRP-6, tanto naqueles com DC quanto no paciente com carcinóide pulmonar. Não houve maior expressão dos receptores CRHR1 e AVPR1B nos pacientes com DC responsivos aos respectivos testes, observando-se, no entanto, uma forte associação entre respostas in vivo e a expressão desses receptores nos pacientes com SEA. As concentrações de ACTH e cortisol induzidas pela administração de GHRP-6 foram mais elevadas nos pacientes com DC quando comparados aos controles, havendo, no entanto, superposição entre as respostas. Observamos também elevação dos níveis séricos de GH nos indivíduos controles e, em menor intensidade, nos pacientes com DC. CONCLUSÕES: Houve maior expressão do receptor GHSR-1a em pacientes com SC ACTH-dependente responsivos ao GHRP-6, estabelecendo-se uma relação direta entre a expressão do receptor e a resposta in vivo ao secretagogo, tanto em pacientes com DC quanto nos portadores de SEA. Uma associação entre a expressão dos receptores CRHR1 e AVPR1B com a resposta in vivo aos respectivos secretagogos foi observada nos pacientes com SEA e não nos pacientes com DC. Tendo em vista a resposta ao GHRP-6 em paciente com SEA, limita-se o uso desse peptídeo no diagnóstico diferencial da SC ACTH-dependente. / INTRODUCTION: The differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing\'s syndrome (CS) is one of the major challenges in endocrinology, especially in view of the similar clinical and laboratorial behavior between some carcinoid tumors and Cushing\'s disease (CD). Hence, dynamic tests of ACTH and cortisol release have been carried out with the aim to identify predictive and specific responses for this differential diagnosis. The pattern of the responses has been attributed to receptors overexpression, yet few studies have been undertaken to confirm such association. The aim of the present study was to verify whether ACTH and cortisol release in response to human CRH (hCRH), desmopressin, and GH releasing peptide (GHRP-6) depends on the magnitude of expression of their respective receptors (CRHR1, AVPR1B e GHSR-1a) in samples of tumors from patients with ACTH-dependent CS. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty two patients (20 with CD and 2 with Ectopic ACTH Syndrome [EAS], lung and thymus carcinoid tumors) from the Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism of University of Sao Paulo School of Medicine, median age of 32 years (15-54 years), being 18 females and 4 males, were evaluated between 2002 and 2004. The patients were submitted to dynamic tests with hCRH (100 µg), desmopressin (10 µg) and GHRP-6 (1 µg/kg), with measurement of ACTH and cortisol levels, and also of GH in the case of GHRP-6 stimulation. Twenty one age and sex-matched controls were submitted to the GHRP-6 test. During surgery, tumor fragments were collected and subsequently processed for total mRNA extraction. Gene expression of CRHR1, AVPR1B and GHSR-1a relative to GAPDH was quantitated by real-time qPCR. Tissue samples of normal pituitary, lung and thymus from necropsy were used as controls. RESULTS: Greater expression of GHSR-1a was observed in patients responsive to the GHRP-6 test, both in those with CD and in the one with pulmonary carcinoid tumor. No enhanced expression of receptors CRHR1 and AVPR1B was found in CD patients responsive to the respective dynamic tests, yet there was a strong association between the in vivo responses and the expression of those receptors in the two patients with EAS. GHRP-6 -induced ACTH and cortisol release was more marked in patients with CD as compared with control individuals, but there was overlap of the responses. GH stimulation was observed in control individuals and, to a lesser extent, in patients with CD. CONCLUSIONS: There was greater expression of GHSR-1a in patients with ACTH-dependent CS who responded to GHRP-6, establishing a direct association between receptor gene expression and the in vivo response to the secretagogue in both CD patients and those with EAS. An association between expression of CRHR1 and AVPR1B and the in vivo response to the respective secretagogues was found in patients with EAS but not in those with CD. In view of the response to GHRP-6 in a patient with EAS, we considered the use of this peptide in the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent CS of limited value.

O hipercortisolismo ACTH-dependente (HAD), também chamado de doença de Cushing, é uma das endocrinopatias mais comumente diagnosticadas na espécie canina. A sintomatologia clínica ocorre, secundariamente, aos efeitos gliconeogênicos, catabólicos, antiinflamatórios e imunossupressores dos glicocorticóides sobre vários sistemas orgânicos. Há uma marcante predisposição da doença na raça poodle e casos familiais têm sido diagnosticados sugerindo uma causa genética. As alterações moleculares que levam ao desenvolvimento do HAD em cães permanecem indefinidas. Dentre os genes implicados no desenvolvimento dos corticotrofos e na regulação do eixo corticotrófico, destacam-se o Tbx19 e o Crhr1, respectivamente. O Tbx19 é um fator de transcrição obrigatório para a transcrição do gene da proopiomelanocortina (POMC) e para a diferenciação terminal dos corticotrofos. Como está presente, exclusivamente, em corticotrofos normais e adenomatosos, foi proposto seu envolvimento na secreção excessiva de ACTH na doença de Cushing. A presença de CRHR1 nos corticotrofinomas na espécie humana e canina levantou a hipótese da sua participação na tumorigênese hipofisária, promovendo uma estimulação celular prolongada, mesmo na ausência de hormônios hipotalâmicos. Um aumento da expressão do CRHR1 foi demonstrado nos tumores corticotróficos, apesar da secreção autônoma de ACTH e dos níveis portais suprimidos de CRH em pacientes humanos e caninos com doença de Cushing. Os objetivos do presente trabalho foram pesquisar a presença de mutações germinativas nas regiões codificadoras dos genes Tbx19 e Crhr1 em cães com HAD. Para tanto, estudamos 50 cães da raça poodle com hipercortisolismo ACTH-dependente (33 fêmeas e 17 machos), com idade média de 8,71 anos e 50 cães controle da mesma raça (32 fêmeas e 18 machos) com idade superior a 6 anos (média de 9,38 anos) e sem endocrinopatias. O DNA genômico foi extraído e amplificado através da reação de polimerização em cadeia (PCR), utilizando-se oligonucleotídeos (primers) específicos para os genes Tbx19 e Crhr1. Foi identificada uma nova variante alélica tanto no Tbx19 como no Crhr1, ambas não descritas na literatura. No gene Tbx19, a variante p. S343G foi encontrada em dois cães não aparentados, mas também em dois controles normais, sugerindo tratar-se de um novo polimorfismo. Já a variante p. V97M do Crhr1 foi encontrada, em heterozigose em um animal com HAD, porém não foi observada em cem alelos normais. O códon 97 está localizado no domínio extracelular aminoterminal do gene Crhr1, de extrema importância para a ligação com alta afinidade ao ligante. O estudo molecular da estrutura quartenária da proteína mutada, seguido da avaliação da energia de ligação da superfície de contato entre o hormônio e o receptor revelou um rearranjo estrutural com alteração da superfície de contato entre o CRH e o seu receptor CRHR1, resultando em uma energia de ligação 17% superior à do receptor selvagem. Em conclusão, esse estudo não identificou alterações no gene Tbx19 associadas ao hipercortisolismo ACTH-dependente canino, mas por outro lado, identificou pela primeira vez, uma mutação ativadora no Crhr1, provavelmente responsável pelo hipercortisolismo ACTH-dependente em um cão da raça poodle. / The ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism (ADH), also called Cushing\'s disease, is one of the most commonly diagnosed endocrine diseases in dogs. The symptoms occur due to glucocorticoids excess leading to gluconeogenic, catabolic, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects in multiple organs and systems. There is a high incidence of Cushing\'s disease in Poodles and familial disease has been identified suggesting a genetic involvement. The molecular changes that lead to the development of ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism in dogs remain undefined. Among genes implicated in corticotroph development and in corticotropic axis regulation, we would like to point out Tbx19 and Crhr1, respectively. Tbx19 gene is a transcription factor required for transcription of the proopiomelanocortin gene and for terminal differentiation of the corticotroph. Inactivating mutations in that gene are associated with human isolated ACTH deficiency. Since Tbx19 is present exclusively in normal and adenomatous corticotroph cells, its involvement in the secretion of ACTH in Cushing\'s disease was proposed. The presence of CRHR1 in corticotrophinomas in humans and dogs raised the possibility of its involvement in pituitary tumorigenesis, promoting prolonged cell stimulation, even in the absence of hypothalamic hormones. An increased expression of the CRHR1 mRNA was demonstrated in human and canine ACTH-secreting pituitary adenomas, despite the autonomous ACTH secretion and the low portal levels of CRH. The aim of this study was to investigate Tbx19 and Crhr1 coding region mutations in Poodle dogs with ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism. We studied 50 Poodle dogs with ADH (33 females and 17 males) with a mean age of 8.71 years and 50 control dogs of the same breed (32 females and 18 males) older than 6 years (mean 9.38 years) and without endocrinopathies. Genomic DNA was extracted from peripheral blood, amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using specific intronic primers and submitted to automatic sequence. We identified a new allelic variant in the Tbx19 and Crhr1 coding regions. The allelic variant p. S343G in the Tbx19 gene was found in two unrelated dogs, but also in two normal controls, suggesting that this is a new polymorphism. The Crhr1 allelic variant p. V97M was found in heterozygosity in one animal with ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism, but was not observed in one hundred normal alleles. The codon 97 is located in the extracellular amino terminal domain of the Crhr1 and is extremely important for high affinity ligand binding. The molecular analysis of the quaternary structure of normal and mutated proteins, followed by evaluation of the binding energy of the contact surface between the hormone and the receptor showed a structural rearrangement of the mutated protein by changing the contact surface between the CRH and its receptor CRHR1, resulting in a binding energy 17% higher than the wild type. In conclusion, this study did not identify Tbx19 mutations associated with canine ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism, but on the other hand, we first identified a Crhr1 gain-of-function mutation probably responsible for ACTH-dependent hypercortisolism in a Poodle dog of our cohort.

Crohns sjukdom är en kronisk inflammatorisk tarmsjukdom av okänd orsak. Det tidigaste tecknet på Crohns sjukdom är mikroskopiska sår i det s.k. follikelassocierade epitelet (FAE) som täcker ansamlingar av immunceller i tarmen. FAE är specialiserat för att fånga innehåll från tarmen och transportera det till underliggande immunvävnad. Denna funktion är viktig för att inducera skyddande immunsvar, men den utgör också en ingångsväg för sjukdomsalstrande bakterier. Crohns sjukdom är associerat med ett kraftigt ökat immunsvar mot bakterier, och sjukdomsförloppet kan ändras av stress. Det övergripande syftet med avhandlingen var att studera effekterna av stress på FAE samt att undersöka rollen av FAE vid utvecklingen av tarminflammation, särskilt vid Crohns sjukdom. Inledningsvis studerades effekterna av psykologisk stress på FAE. Stressade råttor uppvisade ökad genomsläpplighet av bakterier efter stress, och passagen var högre i FAE än i vanligt epitel. Efterföljande experiment visade att stressförändringarna i slemhinnan regleras via kortikotropinfrisättande hormon och mastceller. Vidare visade det sig att vasoaktiv intestinal peptid kunde efterlikna stressens effekter på genomsläppligheten, och att detta kunde förhindras genom att blockera mastcellerna. Studier av tunntarmsslemhinna från patienter med icke-inflammatorisk tarmsjukdom och friska kontroller visade en högre passage av bakterier i FAE än i vanligt epitel. Hos patienter med Crohns sjukdom var bakteriepassagen genom FAE betydligt ökad jämfört med kontroller. Resultaten från detta avhandlingsarbete visar att stress kan förändra upptaget av bakterier från tarmen via FAE, med mekanismer som innefattar kortikotropinfrisättande hormon och mastceller. Detta har gett nya kunskaper kring regleringen av slemhinnebarriären. Vidare presenterar denna avhandling nya insikter i sjukdomsuppkomsten vid Crohns sjukdom genom att påvisa en tidigare okänd defekt i barriärfunktionen i FAE. / The earliest observable signs of Crohn’s disease are microscopic erosions in the follicle-associated epithelium (FAE) covering the Peyer’s patches. The FAE, which contains M cells, is specialised in sampling of luminal content and delivery to underlying immune cells. This sampling is crucial for induction of protective immune responses, but it also provides a route of entry for microorganisms into the mucosa. Crohn’s disease is associated with an increased immune response to bacteria, and the disease course can be altered by stress. The overall aim of this thesis was to study the effects of stress on the FAE and elucidate the role of FAE in the development of intestinal inflammation, specifically Crohn’s disease. Initially, rats were submitted to acute and chronic water avoidance stress to study the effects of psychological stress on the FAE. Stressed rats showed enhanced antigen and bacterial passage, and the passage was higher in FAE than in regular villus epithelium (VE). Further, stress gave rise to ultrastructural changes. Subsequent experiments revealed the stress-induced increase in permeability to be regulated by corticotropin-releasing hormone and mast cells. Furthermore, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) mimicked the stress effects on permeability, and the VIP effects were inhibited by a mast cell stabiliser. Human studies of ileal mucosa from patients with non-inflammatory disease and healthy controls showed a higher antigen and bacterial passage in FAE than in VE. In patients with Crohn’s disease, the bacterial passage across the FAE was significantly increased compared to non-inflammatory and inflammatory controls (ulcerative colitis). Furthermore, there was an enhanced uptake of bacteria into dendritic cells, and augmented TNF-α release in Crohn’s disease mucosa. Taken together this thesis shows that stress can modulate the uptake of luminal antigens and bacteria via the FAE, through mechanisms involving CRH and mast cells. It further shows that human ileal FAE is functionally distinct from VE, and that Crohn’s disease patients exhibit enhanced FAE permeability compared to inflammatory and non-inflammatory controls. This thesis presents novel insights into regulation of the FAE barrier, as well as into the pathophysiology of Crohn’s disease by demonstrating a previously unrecognised defect of the FAE barrier function in ileal Crohn’s disease.

A fundamental question in the neurobiological study of drug addiction concerns the mechanisms mediating the motivational effects of chronic drug withdrawal. According to one theory, drugs of abuse activate opposing motivational processes after both acute and chronic drug use. The negative experience of withdrawal is the opponent process of chronic drug use that drives relapse to drug-seeking and -taking, making the identification of the neurobiological substrates mediating withdrawal an issue of central importance in addiction research. In this thesis, I identify the involvement of the neurotransmitters dopamine (DA) and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the opponent motivational a- and b-processes occurring after acute and chronic nicotine administration. I report that acute nicotine stimulates an initial aversive a-process followed by a rewarding opponent b-process, and chronic nicotine stimulates a rewarding a-process followed by an aversive opponent b-process (withdrawal). These responses can be modeled using a place conditioning paradigm. I demonstrate that the acute nicotine a-process is mediated by phasic dopaminergic activity and the DA receptor subtype-1 (D1R) but not by tonic dopaminergic activity and the DA receptor subtype-2 (D2R) or CRF activity, and the opponent b-process is neither DA- nor CRF-mediated. I also demonstrate that the chronic nicotine a-process is DA- but not CRF-mediated, and that withdrawal from chronic nicotine (the b-process) decreases tonic but not phasic DA activity in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), an effect that is D2R- but not D1R-mediated. I show that a specific pattern of signaling at D1Rs and D2Rs mediates the motivational responses to acute nicotine and chronic nicotine withdrawal, respectively, by demonstrating that both increasing or decreasing signaling at these receptors prevents the expression of the conditioned motivational response. Furthermore, I report that the induction of nicotine dependence increases CRF mRNA in VTA DA neurons, and that blocking either the upregulation of CRF mRNA or the activation of VTA CRF receptors prevents the anxiogenic and aversive motivational responses to withdrawal from chronic nicotine. The results described in this thesis provide novel evidence of a VTA DA/CRF system, and demonstrate that both CRF and a specific pattern of tonic DA activity in the VTA are necessary for the aversive motivational experience of nicotine withdrawal.

Background: Lithium augmentation is a first-line strategy for depressed patients resistant to antidepressive therapy, but little is known about patients’ subsequent long-term course or outcome predictors. We investigated long-term outcomes of unipolar depressed patients who had participated in a study on the effects of lithium augmentation on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system using the combined dexamethasone/corticotrophin-releasing hormone (DEX/CRH) test. Methods: Twelve to 28 months (mean 18.6 ± 4.6 months) after lithium augmentation, 23 patients were assessed with a standardized interview, of which 18 patients had complete DEX/CRH test results. Relapse was diagnosed by DSM-IV criteria (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SCID I). Results: Only 11 patients (48%) had a favorable follow-up, defined as absence of major depressive episodes during the observation period. Patients with a favorable and an unfavorable course did not differ in clinical or sociodemographic parameters, endocrinological results or continuation of lithium. However, fewer previous depressive episodes tended to correlate (p = 0.09) with a favorable course. Conclusion: Results from studies using the DEX/CRH test to predict relapse in depressed patients treated with antidepressants were not replicated for lithium augmentation. Our finding could reflect the elevation of DEX/CRH results by lithium, independent of clinical course. Limitations of the study are its small sample size, the heterogeneous clinical baseline conditions and the lack of lithium serum levels. The fact that lithium continuation did not predict the course might be related to the difference between the efficacy of lithium in controlled studies and its effectiveness in naturalistic settings. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

A fundamental question in the neurobiological study of drug addiction concerns the mechanisms mediating the motivational effects of chronic drug withdrawal. According to one theory, drugs of abuse activate opposing motivational processes after both acute and chronic drug use. The negative experience of withdrawal is the opponent process of chronic drug use that drives relapse to drug-seeking and -taking, making the identification of the neurobiological substrates mediating withdrawal an issue of central importance in addiction research. In this thesis, I identify the involvement of the neurotransmitters dopamine (DA) and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the opponent motivational a- and b-processes occurring after acute and chronic nicotine administration. I report that acute nicotine stimulates an initial aversive a-process followed by a rewarding opponent b-process, and chronic nicotine stimulates a rewarding a-process followed by an aversive opponent b-process (withdrawal). These responses can be modeled using a place conditioning paradigm. I demonstrate that the acute nicotine a-process is mediated by phasic dopaminergic activity and the DA receptor subtype-1 (D1R) but not by tonic dopaminergic activity and the DA receptor subtype-2 (D2R) or CRF activity, and the opponent b-process is neither DA- nor CRF-mediated. I also demonstrate that the chronic nicotine a-process is DA- but not CRF-mediated, and that withdrawal from chronic nicotine (the b-process) decreases tonic but not phasic DA activity in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), an effect that is D2R- but not D1R-mediated. I show that a specific pattern of signaling at D1Rs and D2Rs mediates the motivational responses to acute nicotine and chronic nicotine withdrawal, respectively, by demonstrating that both increasing or decreasing signaling at these receptors prevents the expression of the conditioned motivational response. Furthermore, I report that the induction of nicotine dependence increases CRF mRNA in VTA DA neurons, and that blocking either the upregulation of CRF mRNA or the activation of VTA CRF receptors prevents the anxiogenic and aversive motivational responses to withdrawal from chronic nicotine. The results described in this thesis provide novel evidence of a VTA DA/CRF system, and demonstrate that both CRF and a specific pattern of tonic DA activity in the VTA are necessary for the aversive motivational experience of nicotine withdrawal.

INTRODUÇÃO: O diagnóstico diferencial da síndrome de Cushing (SC) ACTH-dependente é um dos maiores desafios da endocrinologia, devido ao comportamento clínico e laboratorial semelhante de alguns tumores carcinóides com a doença de Cushing (DC). Assim, testes dinâmicos de secreção de ACTH e cortisol têm sido utilizados com o objetivo de identificar respostas que sejam preditivas e específicas no diagnóstico diferencial. O padrão dessas respostas é atribuído à superexpressão de receptores; entretanto, poucos estudos foram realizados para comprovar tal associação. O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar se a secreção de ACTH e cortisol em resposta aos testes do CRH humano (hCRH), da desmopressina, e do peptídeo liberador do GH (GHRP-6) é dependente da magnitude de expressão dos seus respectivos receptores (CRHR1, AVPR1B e GHSR-1a) em amostras de tumores de pacientes portadores da SC ACTH-dependente. CASUÍSTICA E MÉTODOS: Entre 2002 e 2004, foram avaliados 22 pacientes (20 com DC e dois com Secreção Ectópica de ACTH [SEA], carcinóide de pulmão e timo), idade mediana de 32 anos (15-54 anos), sendo 18 do sexo feminino e quatro do sexo masculino, provenientes da Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Os pacientes foram submetidos aos testes do hCRH (100 µg), desmopressina (10 µg) e GHRP-6 (1 µg/kg) com dosagens de ACTH e cortisol e também de GH no caso do GHRP-6. Vinte e um indivíduos controles, pareados por sexo e idade, foram submetidos ao teste do GHRP-6. Durante o ato operatório, fragmentos de tumor foram coletados para posterior extração do RNA total. O estudo da expressão foi feito por meio de PCR quantitativo em tempo real dos genes CRHR1, AVPR1B e GHSR-1a em relação ao GAPDH. Fragmentos de tecidos normais (hipófise, pulmão e timo) procedentes de necropsias foram utilizados como controles. RESULTADOS: Observamos maior expressão de GHSR-1a nos pacientes responsivos ao GHRP-6, tanto naqueles com DC quanto no paciente com carcinóide pulmonar. Não houve maior expressão dos receptores CRHR1 e AVPR1B nos pacientes com DC responsivos aos respectivos testes, observando-se, no entanto, uma forte associação entre respostas in vivo e a expressão desses receptores nos pacientes com SEA. As concentrações de ACTH e cortisol induzidas pela administração de GHRP-6 foram mais elevadas nos pacientes com DC quando comparados aos controles, havendo, no entanto, superposição entre as respostas. Observamos também elevação dos níveis séricos de GH nos indivíduos controles e, em menor intensidade, nos pacientes com DC. CONCLUSÕES: Houve maior expressão do receptor GHSR-1a em pacientes com SC ACTH-dependente responsivos ao GHRP-6, estabelecendo-se uma relação direta entre a expressão do receptor e a resposta in vivo ao secretagogo, tanto em pacientes com DC quanto nos portadores de SEA. Uma associação entre a expressão dos receptores CRHR1 e AVPR1B com a resposta in vivo aos respectivos secretagogos foi observada nos pacientes com SEA e não nos pacientes com DC. Tendo em vista a resposta ao GHRP-6 em paciente com SEA, limita-se o uso desse peptídeo no diagnóstico diferencial da SC ACTH-dependente. / INTRODUCTION: The differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing\'s syndrome (CS) is one of the major challenges in endocrinology, especially in view of the similar clinical and laboratorial behavior between some carcinoid tumors and Cushing\'s disease (CD). Hence, dynamic tests of ACTH and cortisol release have been carried out with the aim to identify predictive and specific responses for this differential diagnosis. The pattern of the responses has been attributed to receptors overexpression, yet few studies have been undertaken to confirm such association. The aim of the present study was to verify whether ACTH and cortisol release in response to human CRH (hCRH), desmopressin, and GH releasing peptide (GHRP-6) depends on the magnitude of expression of their respective receptors (CRHR1, AVPR1B e GHSR-1a) in samples of tumors from patients with ACTH-dependent CS. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty two patients (20 with CD and 2 with Ectopic ACTH Syndrome [EAS], lung and thymus carcinoid tumors) from the Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism of University of Sao Paulo School of Medicine, median age of 32 years (15-54 years), being 18 females and 4 males, were evaluated between 2002 and 2004. The patients were submitted to dynamic tests with hCRH (100 µg), desmopressin (10 µg) and GHRP-6 (1 µg/kg), with measurement of ACTH and cortisol levels, and also of GH in the case of GHRP-6 stimulation. Twenty one age and sex-matched controls were submitted to the GHRP-6 test. During surgery, tumor fragments were collected and subsequently processed for total mRNA extraction. Gene expression of CRHR1, AVPR1B and GHSR-1a relative to GAPDH was quantitated by real-time qPCR. Tissue samples of normal pituitary, lung and thymus from necropsy were used as controls. RESULTS: Greater expression of GHSR-1a was observed in patients responsive to the GHRP-6 test, both in those with CD and in the one with pulmonary carcinoid tumor. No enhanced expression of receptors CRHR1 and AVPR1B was found in CD patients responsive to the respective dynamic tests, yet there was a strong association between the in vivo responses and the expression of those receptors in the two patients with EAS. GHRP-6 -induced ACTH and cortisol release was more marked in patients with CD as compared with control individuals, but there was overlap of the responses. GH stimulation was observed in control individuals and, to a lesser extent, in patients with CD. CONCLUSIONS: There was greater expression of GHSR-1a in patients with ACTH-dependent CS who responded to GHRP-6, establishing a direct association between receptor gene expression and the in vivo response to the secretagogue in both CD patients and those with EAS. An association between expression of CRHR1 and AVPR1B and the in vivo response to the respective secretagogues was found in patients with EAS but not in those with CD. In view of the response to GHRP-6 in a patient with EAS, we considered the use of this peptide in the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent CS of limited value.

Background: Lithium augmentation is a first-line strategy for depressed patients resistant to antidepressive therapy, but little is known about patients’ subsequent long-term course or outcome predictors. We investigated long-term outcomes of unipolar depressed patients who had participated in a study on the effects of lithium augmentation on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system using the combined dexamethasone/corticotrophin-releasing hormone (DEX/CRH) test. Methods: Twelve to 28 months (mean 18.6 ± 4.6 months) after lithium augmentation, 23 patients were assessed with a standardized interview, of which 18 patients had complete DEX/CRH test results. Relapse was diagnosed by DSM-IV criteria (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SCID I). Results: Only 11 patients (48%) had a favorable follow-up, defined as absence of major depressive episodes during the observation period. Patients with a favorable and an unfavorable course did not differ in clinical or sociodemographic parameters, endocrinological results or continuation of lithium. However, fewer previous depressive episodes tended to correlate (p = 0.09) with a favorable course. Conclusion: Results from studies using the DEX/CRH test to predict relapse in depressed patients treated with antidepressants were not replicated for lithium augmentation. Our finding could reflect the elevation of DEX/CRH results by lithium, independent of clinical course. Limitations of the study are its small sample size, the heterogeneous clinical baseline conditions and the lack of lithium serum levels. The fact that lithium continuation did not predict the course might be related to the difference between the efficacy of lithium in controlled studies and its effectiveness in naturalistic settings. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.