Pertencendo à família dos eletrodos de carbono, o carbono polimérico vítreo (CPV) apresenta condutividade elétrica, estabilidade térmica, resistência mecânica e grande intervalo de potencial. Dessa forma, se torna possível sua aplicação como eletrodo sólido para o monitoramento de processos de transferência de carga, suporte para polímeros eletroativos e modificadores de superfície. O processo de obtenção do CPV se baseia na carbonização em ambiente inerte de materiais precursores, dentre os quais, podem-se destacar as resinas fenólicas, como por exemplo, resol (C7H8O2). Neste contexto, este trabalho investiga a obtenção do CPV a partir da resina fenólica resol, bem como o efeito da incorporação de íons metálicos (crômio, ferro e cério) na estrutura cristalina e nas propriedades eletroquímicas. Os materiais foram caracterizados por análise térmica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, difratometria de raio-X, espectrofotometria no infra-vermelho e por voltametria cíclica. O difratograma de raio-X confirmou a obtenção de um material com estrutura similar a do carbono vítreo e, através da microscopia eletrônica de varredura, ficou comprovada a baixa porosidade do CPV. Por espectrofotometria no infra-vermelho, ficou demonstrada a presença de grupos funcionais, como carbonilas e hidroxilas, na estrutura do material. Os resultados mostram que tanto o CPV quanto o CPV modificado por íons metálicos possuem boa estabilidade térmica, pois não houve nenhuma decomposição desses materiais abaixo de 400ºC. E, tanto o CPV quanto o CPV modificado por íons metálicos apresentam comportamento eletroquímico similar no sistema ferricianeto/ferrocianeto. Concluindo, o método desenvolvido para obtenção do CPV modificado por íons metálicos é satisfatório, reprodutivo além de proporcionar uma dispersão homogênea dos íons na fase do CPV. Desta forma, possibilita uma nova frente de estudos destes materiais eletródicos em eletrocatálise e eletroanalítica. / Belonging to the family of the carbon electrodes, the glassy polymeric carbon (GPC) presents electric conductivity, thermal stability, mechanical resistance mechanics and great potential interval. In this way, it is possible its application as solid electrode in order to follow electron transfer process, act as support of electroactive molecules and surface modifier. The glassy polymeric carbon production is based on carbonization of organic precursors in inert atmosphere such as phenolic resins (for example, resol - C7H8O2) In this context, this work investigates the production of GPC from phenolic resin, as well as the effect of incorporation of metallic ions (chromium, iron, and cerium) on crystalline structure and electrochemical properties. The materials were characterized by thermal analysis, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectrophotometry, and cyclic voltammetry. X-ray diffraction patterns had confirmed the presence of a material with similar structure of that found in conventional glassy carbon, and through SEM images it has shown a low porosity carbon material. From infrared spectrum, it can be observed carbonyl and hydroxide groups. The found results showed that both GPC and metallic ion modified GPC exhibit thermal stability, since no decomposition has occurred up to 450 oC. And, both carbon materials present similar electrochemical behavior in hexacyanoferrate system. In conclusion, the method developed for attainment of the GPC modified for ions metallic is satisfactory, and reproductive. Besides, it provides a homogeneous dispersion of ions in the bulk phase of the GPC. As a consequence, it makes possible a new front of studies of these materials in electrocatalysis and electroanalysis.

Parmi tous les matériaux oxydes de type pérovskite (ABO3), les ferro-cobaltites de terre rares (LSCF) ont suscité beaucoup d’intérêt en raison de leur conductivité mixte ionique et électronique (MIEC) et de leur forte activité catalytique. L’objectif de cette étude fondamentale est de comprendre l’influence de la microstructure, de la composition de LSCF et de la pression partielle d’oxygène sur l’allure des voltammogrammes et sur la variation de la résistance en série, Rs, en fonction de la polarisation. Ainsi, les propriétés redox de LSCF déposé sur CGO ont été étudiées par voltammétrie cyclique et par des mesures d’impédance sous courant continu dans la gamme de température de 300 à 700 °C et sous une pression partielle d’oxygène égale à 0,21 et 1,8.10-4 atm. Nous avons tout d’abord démontré les effets importants de la microstructure sur l’allure des voltammogrammes de l’électrode LSCF/CGO. Dans le cas d’une couche dense, les voltammogrammes expérimentaux présentent des pics cathodiques et anodiques symétriques caractéristiques d’un composé d’intercalation et Rs augmente avec la polarisation cathodique. Pour une couche poreuse sous air, les voltammogrammes sont identiques à la courbe de polarisation et Rs ne varie pas. Puis, nous avons montré que la pression partielle d’oxygène influe également fortement sur la réponse voltammétrique du matériau poreux avec apparition des pics cathodiques et anodiques. La nature des pics et leur attribution au changement de concentration en lacunes dans LSCF ont été confirmées par un travail de simulation des voltammogrammes en fonction de paramètres microstructuraux et de la pression partielle d’oxygène. Enfin, l’étude de cinq compositions de LSCF de microstructure poreuse a montré sous faible p(O2) que les voltammogrammes cycliques sont plus complexes pour les composés LSCF riches en cobalt que pour les riches en fer. / Among perovskite-type oxide materials (ABO3), rare earth doped cobalt ferrites (LSCFs) aroused a lot of interest because of their mixed ionic and electronic conductivity (MIEC) and their high catalytic activity. The objective of this fundamental study was to understand the influence of the microstructure, the LSCF composition and the oxygen partial pressure on the voltammogram shape and on the variation of the series resistance, Rs, as a function of continuous polarization. Thus, the redox properties of LSCF deposited on CGO were studied by cyclic voltammetry and by DC impedance measurements in the temperature range of 300-700 °C and under oxygen partial pressure equal to 0.21 and 1.8 × 10-4 atm. First, we demonstrated the significant effects of the microstructure on the voltammogram shape of the LSCF / CGO electrode. In the case of a dense layer, the voltammograms exhibit symmetrical cathodic and anodic peaks characteristic of an intercalation compound and Rs increases with cathodic polarization. For a porous layer in air, the voltammograms are identical to the polarization curve and Rs do not vary. Then, we have shown that the oxygen partial pressure strongly influences the voltammetric response of the porous material with appearance of cathodic and anodic peaks. The nature of the peaks and their attribution to the change of concentration in vacancies in LSCF were confirmed by a study of simulation of the voltammograms according to microstructural parameters and the oxygen partial pressure. Finally, the study of five LSCF compositions with porous microstructure showed under low p(O2) that cyclic voltammograms are more complex for cobalt-rich LSCF compounds than for iron-rich ones.

Este trabalho consiste no estudo da eletrodeposição de ligas de Zn/Co para diferentes relações de concentração [Zn2+]/[Co2+] (1:1, 3:1, 6:1, 9:1 e 12:1) sobre aço-carbono ABNT 1020 e sua resistência à corrosão, usando como banho um eletrólito à base de cloretos. Foram realizados estudos preliminares sobre o mecanismo de deposição da liga Zn/Co usando a técnica de voltametria cíclica e estabeleceram-se assim os parâmetros de deposição da liga. Os ensaios de deposição para as relações de concentração [Zn2+]/[Co2+] : 9/1 e [Zn2+]/[Co2+] : 12/1 no banho foram realizados usando a técnica potenciostática (cronoamperometria) e a técnica galvanostática (cronopotenciometria). As relações 1:1, 3:1 e 6:1 não foram escolhidas já que os teores de cobalto de seus eletrodepósitos não estavam na faixa de 1 % a 2 %. Foram feitas análises por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) para conhecer a diversidade morfologia dos eletrodepósitos como conseqüência do aumento do conteúdo de íons de zinco no banho. A identificação das fases dos eletrodepósitos foi feita por difração de raios X (XRD) e a composição elementar mediante espectroscopia de energia dispersiva de raios X (EDS) e fluorescência de raios X (XRF). Os ensaios de avaliação da resistência à corrosão foram realizados em solução naturalmente areada de NaCl 0,1 M por técnicas eletroquímicas como espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica e curvas de polarização potenciodinâmicas. A partir dos resultados obtidos na voltametria cíclica foi possível selecionar a faixa de potencial adequada para a realização dos ensaios potenciostáticos e galvanostáticos das relações [Zn2+]/[Co2+] 9:1 e 12:1. As análises dos dados obtidos dos transientes de corrente (ensaios potenciostáticos) para cada relação (9:1 e 12:1) permitiram concluir que para ambas as relações seus processos de nucleação ocorrem seguindo uma transição, iniciando-se como progressiva para t/tmax < 1 e passando a instantânea para t/tmax > 1. As técnicas eletroquímicas usadas para avaliar a resistência à corrosão mostraram que os eletrodepósitos obtidos com a técnica potenciostática foram mais resistentes à corrosão que os eletrodepósitos obtidos com a técnica galvanostática, sendo o potencial de - 1450 mV vs Ag/AgCl e a densidade de corrente catódica de 30 mA/cm2 as melhores condições para a obtenção de eletrodepósitos de Zn/Co com boa resistência à corrosão. / This work reports the study of the electrodeposition of Zn/Co alloys with different concentration ratios [Zn2+]/[Co2+] (1:1, 3:1, 6:1, 9:1 e 12:1) on carbon steel ABNT 1020 and its corrosion resistance, using a chloride - based electrolyte. Initial studies were performed to find the best parameters of deposition by cyclic voltammetry. The alloy deposition for concentration ratios of [Zn2+]/[Co2+] : 9/1 and [Zn2+]/[Co2+] : 12/1 were carried out using potentiostatic (chronoamperometry) and galvanostatic (chronopotenciometry) techniques. The ratios 1:1, 3:1 e 6:1 were not chosen because them composition in cobalt were not within the range of 1% to 2%. Scan electron microscopy (SEM) was performed in order to verify the morphological diversity of the electrodeposits as a consequence of the increasing zinc concentration in the bath. X-ray diffraction was used to identify the phases present in the electrodeposits; their elemental composition was determined by X-ray dispersive energy spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence. Corrosion resistance experiments were performed in aerated 0,1 M NaCl solution by electrochemical techniques such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and potenciodynamic polarization curves. From the voltametric results it was possible to select the adequate potential range in order to perform the potenciostatic and galvanostatic experiments for concentration ratios of [Zn2+]/[Co2+] 9:1 and 12:1. Analysis of the data obtained from the current transients for each ratio (9:1 and 12:1) allow us to conclude that, for both ratios, the processes of nucleation occur following a transition which starts as progressive for t/tmax < 1 and become instantaneous for t/tmax > 1. The electrodeposits obtained by potentiostatic and galvanostatic techniques were evaluated for their corrosion resistant and the best results were found for potentiostatic deposition at -1450 mV vs Ag/AgCl and galvanostatic deposition at 30 mA/cm2. In general, the deposits obtained potentiostatically showed better corrosion resistant.

The human brain functions within a narrow range of temperatures and variations outside of this range incur cellular damage and death and, ultimately, death of the organism. Other organisms, like the poikilotherm Drosophila melanogaster, have adapted mechanisms to maintain brain function over wide ranges in temperature and, if exposed to high temperatures where brain function is no longer supported, these animals enter a protective coma to promote survival of the organism once the acute temperature stress is alleviated. This research characterized the role of different neuronal cell types, including glia, in the protection of brain function during acute hyperthermia, specifically looking at two protective pathways: the heat shock protein (HSP) pathway and the cGMP-dependent protein kinase G (PKG) pathway. Whole animal behavioral assays were used in combination with tissue-specific genetic manipulation of protective pathways to determine the specific cell types sufficient to confer protection of neuronal function during acute hyperthermia. Using the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) preparation, calcium imaging techniques were combined with pharmacological and genetic manipulations to test the hypothesis that alterations in ion channel conductance via endogenous mechanisms regulating the cellular response to high temperature stress alter neuronal function. Expression of foraging RNAi to inhibit PKG expression in neurons or glia demonstrated protection of function during acute hyperthermia measured behaviorally through the extension of locomotor function. This extension of function with the tissue-specific inhibition of PKG was also confirmed at the cellular level using the genetically encoded calcium indicator (GECI), GCaMP3, to image calcium dynamics at the NMJ, where preparations expressing foraging RNAi could continue to elicit changes in calcium dynamics in response to stimulation. Over the course of this study, the mechanism underlying a novel glial calcium wave in the peripheral nervous system was characterized in order to elucidate glia’s role in the protection of neuronal function during acute hyperthermia. / Includes bibliography. / Dissertation (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2018. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

Condition based maintenance is becoming increasingly popular in many industrial contexts, offering substantial savings and minimising accidental damage. When applied to rotating machinery, its most common tool is vibration analysis, which relies on well-established mathematical models rooted in the theory of cyclo-non-stationary processes. However, the extraction of diagnostic information from the real world vibration signals is a delicate task requiring the application of sophisticated signal processing techniques, tailored for specific machines operating under restricted conditions. Such difficulty in the current state of the art of vibration analysis forces the industry to apply methods with reduced diagnostic capabilities but higher adaptability. However in doing so most of the potential of vibration analysis is lost and advanced techniques become of use only for academic endeavours. The aim of this document is to reduce the gap between industrial and academic applications of condition monitoring, offering ductile and automated tools which still show high detection capabilities. Three main lines of research are presented in this document. Firstly, the implementation of stochastic resonance in an electrical circuit to enhance directly the analog signal from an accelerometer, in order to lower the computational requirements in the next digital signal processing step. Secondly, the extension of already well-established digital signal processing techniques, cepstral prewhitening and spectral kurtosis, to a wider range of operating conditions, proving their effectiveness in the case of non-stationary speeds. Thirdly, the main contribution of the thesis: the introduction of two novel techniques capable of separating the vibrations of a defective component from the overall vibrations of the machine, by means of a threshold in the amplitude spectrum. After the separation, the cyclic content of the vibration signal is extracted and the thresholded signals provide an enhanced detection. The two proposed methods, phase editing and amplitude cyclic frequency decomposition, are both intuitive and of low computational complexity, but show the same capabilities as more sophisticated state of the art techniques. Furthermore, all these tools have been successfully tested on numerically simulated signals as well as on real vibration data from different machinery, lasting from laboratory test rigs to wind turbines drive-trains and aircraft engines. So in conclusion, the proposed techniques are a promising step toward the full exploitation of condition based maintenance in industrial contexts.

Os erros cíclicos nas escalas das máquinas de medir a três coordenadas (MM3Cs) exercem influência significativa nos resultados das medições efetuadas em comprimentos pequenos. Um dos fatores que contribuem para a ocorrência dos erros cíclicos é a acuracidade limitada dos métodos utilizados na fabricação de escalas. As MM3Cs utilizam escalas desenhadas e fabricadas por métodos fotográficos ou riscadas em máquinas tipo \"step and repeat\". Ambos os métodos produzem um erro sistemático entre traços sucessivos. Desta forma, a medida que o número de traços aumenta as parcelas do erro sistemático somam-se e quando atingem um determinado valor este erro é compensado. Esta correção é feita a cada distância cujo valor corresponde ao de um período cíclico de baixa freqüência e o processo repete-se até que toda a escala seja riscada. Outro fator que contribui para a existência dos erros cíclicos origina-se da resolução exigida pela MM3C, que é sempre bastante alta e ultrapassa as capacidades existentes atualmente para fabricação de escalas. O que se faz para lidar com o problema da resolução é subdividir eletronicamente o espaço entre traços consecutivos da escala. Esta divisão eletrônica está associada a um sinal seno gerado pelas franjas de Moiré. A digitalização e subdivisão deste sinal geram erros periódicos, também conhecidos como erros cíclicos de alta freqüência. Embora diversos erros das MM3Cs tenham sido largamente estudados, ainda hoje, não foi realizada uma observação sistemática para que se tenha a exata medida da influência dos erros cíclicos, na medição a três coordenadas. Para suprir essa necessidade e contribuir na busca de novos métodos de avaliação, este trabalho apresenta os procedimentos de medição dos erros cíclicos de baixa e de alta freqüência, bem como a aplicação de Análise de Fourier aos conjuntos de dados obtidos. A medição da distância entre as linhas consecutivas da régua móvel da MM3C também foi realizada e os resultados comprovaram a existência dos erros de fabricação, a ocorrência de compensação periódica e também sugeriram os erros de subdivisão eletrônica. Além disso, no levantamento dos erros cíclicos de baixa freqüência foi confirmada a existência de um período cíclico de quatro milímetros. / Cyclic errors in scales of Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs) have a significant influence in measuring results on a very small displacement hindering most of the measuring tasks. One of the factors that contribute to the appearance of the cyclic errors is the limited accuracy of the used manufacturing methods of the scales. CMMs use scales drawn and manufactured by photographic methods or marked in step and repeat machines. In both methods the distances between succeeding lines are prone to systematic errors and therefore, with the increasing of the number of lines systematic errors are added up. Error compensation is provided when the amount of errors reaches a predetermined value. The error correction made at predetermined lengths defines a period what one can call the low frequency cyclic error. This process must be repeated all along the scale. Another factor that contributes to the existence of cyclic errors originates from high resolution required by CMM that goes beyond the existent manufacturing capacities of scales. This problem is somewhat solved by means of an electronic signals splitting up. The electronic sign obtained as two consecutive lines on the scale is probed can be associated to a sine signal what is generated by Moiré type fringes. Digital conversion and electronic division of these signals also generate periodic errors and can be called high frequency cyclic error. Although several types of errors in CMMs have been largely studied,there is a lack regarding the cyclic errors. A huge need for a systematic study and observation of these errors is needed to permit an exact measure of its influence on coordinate measurements. To cope with the urgent need and to contribute in the search for new evaluation methods of the cyclic errors, this work presents a measuring procedure of low and high frequency cyclic errors and the application of Fourier Analysis to the testing data. Measurements of distances between consecutive lines of the scale were also obtained and the results have shown the existent manufacturing errors and suggested frequencies and period of errors of electronic division. A cyclic period of four millimeters was confirmed in the low frequency tests.

Devido à sua baixa solubilidade em água, os pirrolidinoditiocarbamatos poderiam produzir eletrodos livres do problema de lixiviação do modificador, os quais poderiam ser usados como detectores amperométricos, em análises em fluxo e outros procedimentos hidrodinâmicos. O complexo poderia agir como um intermediário de transferência de elétrons entre o analito e a superfície eletródica, aumentando a sensibilidade da resposta analítica do sensor. Desta forma, eletrodos de pasta de carbono modificados (EPCM) com complexos de pirrolidinoditiocarbamatos anidros de diversos metais foram preparados e testados quanto à sua aplicação em técnicas voltamétricas. Os complexos de manganês(II), [MnPyr2] e cobalto(II), [CoPyr2], foram os que apresentaram os melhores resultados em termos de estabilidade e reprodutibilidade de resposta, escolhendo-se o EPCM-[MnPyr2], para uso neste trabalho. O desempenho do eletrodo foi avaliado usando voltametria cíclica, cronoamperometria e análise em fluxo, com detecção amperométrica de peróxido de hidrogênio apresentando regiões lineares de 1,25-14,8; 0,5-41; 1,0-75 x 10-4 mol L-1 e limites de detecção de 11,2; 2,98; 5,40 x 10-5 mol L-1 respectivamente para cada técnica. Na determinação de peróxido de hidrogênio em amostra de alvejante comercial observou-se concordância nos resultados obtidos em voltametria cíclica e análise em fluxo, usando o eletrodo proposto em comparação com a permanganometria clássica, com 95 % de intervalo de confiança. Estes resultados foram obtidos após otimização de parâmetros como velocidade de varredura, pH, eletrólito suporte, entre outros. A oxidação ocorre por meio de um processo eletrocatalítico. O desempenho do pirrolidinoditiocarbamato de vanadila hidratado também foi avaliado como alternativa aos ditiocarbamatos anidros, na preparação de eletrodos modificados com esta classe de complexos, considerando que os complexos hidratados seriam mais fáceis de preparar. Entretanto uma baixa estabilidade e reprodutibilidade de resposta foi observada. O [MnPyr2] mostrou comportamento no qual ocorre oxidação, concordando com a proposta de Schrauzer para ligantes do tipo ímpar, apesar de que a oxidação só ocorreu na presença de oxidantes fortes, como o peróxido de hidrogênio. / Considering their low solubility in water, the dithiocarbamate complexes should produce electrodes without problems of modifier leaching. Such electrodes could be used as amperometric detectors in flow injection analysis and hydrodynamic methods. The complex should act as an electron transfer mediator between the analyte and the electrode surface, improving the response sensitivity of the sensor. Considering these statements carbon paste electrodes modified (EPCM) with anhydrous pyrrolidinedithiocarbamates of several metals were prepared and evaluated in relation to their possible application in voltammetric techniques. Best results regarding response stability and reproducibility were obtained with manganese(II), [MnPyr2] and cobalt(II), [CoPyr2] complexes. The first one was chosen to develop the present work. The electrode performance was evaluated in cyclic voltammetry, chrono amperometric and flow injection analysis with amperometric detection. Linear dynamic ranges of 1,25-14,8; 0,5-41; 1,0-75 x 10-4 mol L-1 and limits of detection of 11,2; 2,98; 5,40 x 10-5 mol L-1 were found respectively for each technique in the determination of hydrogen peroxyde. The methods were used for the determination of H2O2 in bleaching formulation and presented agreement with the classical titration with potassium permanganate within 95% confidence level. Such results have been obtained after optimization of experimental parameters such as scan rate, pH, supporting electrolyte, and others. The oxidation occurred by an electrocatalytic process. Finally the performance of a carbon paste electrode modified with a hydrated vanadyl pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate complex was evaluated as an alternative to the anhydrous complex in the preparation of the modified electrode, since the hydrated complexes are easier to prepare. However a low response stability and reproducibility have been observed. The [MnPyr2] presented an oxidation behavior in agreement with Schrauzer’s predictions, although the oxidation of the metal center occurred only in the presence of strong oxidative agents as the hydrogen peroxide.

Wong Cheuk Ying. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 101-124). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Abstract --- p.i / 摘要 --- p.iv / Acknowledgement --- p.vi / List of Abbreviations --- p.vii / Chapter Chapter 1. --- General Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter Chapter 2. --- Methods --- p.4 / Chapter 2.1 --- Measurement of cAMP and cGMP in VSMCs --- p.4 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Cell culture --- p.4 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Enzyme-immunoassay colorimetric measurement for cAMP and cGMP --- p.5 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Statistical analysis --- p.6 / Chapter 2.2 --- Measurement of apoptosis in VSMCs and bone marrow-derived stem cells --- p.6 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Cell culture --- p.6 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Hoechst33258 --- p.7 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Cell Death ELISA plus --- p.7 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Protein extraction and Western blot analysis of PKG expression --- p.8 / Chapter 2.2.5 --- Statistical analysis --- p.9 / Chapter 2.3 --- Measurement of cell proliferation in VSMCs and bone marrow-derived stem cells --- p.9 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Cell culture --- p.9 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Cell count --- p.10 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- MTT assay --- p.11 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- BrdU-(5`Bromo-2-deoxyuridine) ELISA colorimetric assay --- p.11 / Chapter 2.3.5 --- Statistical analysis --- p.12 / Chapter Chapter 3. --- Effects of hyperglycemia on CGRP-induced cAMP response in VSMCs / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.13 / Chapter 3.2 --- Results --- p.18 / Chapter 3.3 --- Discussion --- p.22 / Chapter Chapter 4. --- Role of cGMP and protein kinase G in regulation of apoptosis in VSMCs / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.26 / Chapter 4.2 --- Results --- p.30 / Chapter 4.3 --- Discussion --- p.44 / Chapter Chapter 5. --- Role of protein kinase G in regulation of proliferation in VSMCs / Chapter 5.1 --- Introduction --- p.55 / Chapter 5.2 --- Results --- p.58 / Chapter 5.3 --- Discussion --- p.67 / Chapter Chapter 6. --- Effects of aging and eNOS- and iNOS-gene deletion (using eNOS- and iNOS-knockout mice) on apoptosis of VSMCs / Chapter 6.1 --- Introduction --- p.73 / Chapter 6.2 --- Results --- p.76 / Chapter 6.3 --- Discussion --- p.79 / Chapter Chapter 7. --- Role of protein kinase G in regulation of apoptosis and proliferation of bone marrow stromal stem cells / Chapter 7.1 --- Introduction --- p.81 / Chapter 7.2 --- Results --- p.84 / Chapter 7.3 --- Discussion --- p.92 / Chapter Chapter 8. --- Overall discussion --- p.95 / Chapter Chapter 9. --- References --- p.101

Current plastics are mostly derived from petrochemical sources, as it is a finite resource renewable replacements are sought after. Polymers derived from cyclic esters such as; lactide, valerolactone and caprolactone are of interest. An industrially viable method of producing stereocontrolled polylactide (PLA) from rac-lactide is desired. Previous work on poly(cyclic esters) is overviewed in chapter 1 with an emphasis upon PLA. Chapter 2 reports the coordination of Ti(OiPr)4 to homo/piperazine bridged bis(phenol) (salan) ligands. Under ambient conditions bimetallic structures were produced and a steric dependent equilibrium system is discussed. Forcing conditions resulted in monometallic homopiperazine salan complexes. Their application for the ring-opening-polymerisation (ROP) of rac-lactide is investigated. Homo/piperazine salan titanium catecholates were synthesised and their cytotoxicity investigated by collaborators. Chapter 3 details the synthesis of monometallic homopiperazine salan zirconium/hafnium isopropoxide complexes. Their utility for the ROP of rac-lactide in solution and solvent free systems are discussed. Bimetallic or tetrametallic solid state structures from attempts to coordinate Zr(IV)/Hf(IV) metals to piperazine salan ligands are also discussed. Chapter 4 discusses the complexation of AlMe3 with homopiperazine salan ligands. The resulting monometallic complexes were inactive for the ROP of lactide. Benzyl alcohol derivatives were synthesised and trialled for solvent free ROP of rac-lactide, δ-valerolactone, ε-caprolactone. Co-polymerisations were investigated and a tri-block polymer of poly(ε-caprolactone/δ-valerolactone/rac-lactide) was prepared. Chapter 5, trans-1,4-DACH salen ligands were synthesised and investigated as ligands with Al(III), Ti(IV), Zr(IV), and Zn(II) metal centres. Bimetallic Al(III) and Ti(IV) structures were characterised and trialled for the ROP of rac-lactide. Isotactic PLA was reported for aluminium complexes, dependent upon phenoxy substituents, and these polymerisations were shown to be immortal in nature. Chapter 6 details the synthesis of trans-1,2-DACH salalen ligands which were complexed to AlMe3, these initiators were investigated for the solution ROP of rac-lactide. The further synthesis of benzyloxy derivatives is also reported and they were utilised for solution and solvent free polymerisations of rac-lactide. The initiator’s behaviour is discussed with respect to varying amine and imine groups.

The biodegradability and when functionalised biocompatibility of aliphatic polycarbonates (APCs) makes them an attractive class of materials for biomedical applications such as tissue engineering scaffolds and drug-delivery carriers. One route to accessing a wide-range of well-defined and functional APCs is the controlled ring-opening polymerisation (ROP) of cyclic carbonates. In turn, these would ideally be prepared by the direct coupling of CO2 with diols to give water as the only by-product. In this way, the combination of CO2 and sugar-derived diols draws upon two natural renewable building blocks for the construction of polycarbonates that are anticipated to show good biocompatibility properties. Chapter 2 develops a simple and mild alternative to the traditional use of phosgene derivatives for the synthesis of six-membered cyclic carbonates from 1,3-diols and CO2. DFT calculations highlighted the need to lower both the CO2-insertion and ring-closing kinetic barriers to cyclic carbonate formation. Organic superbase, 1,8- diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU) enabled the formation of carbonate species at 1 atm CO2 pressure whereas, the introduction of a leaving group strategy lowered the cyclisation barrier. Mechanistic considerations suggested a kinetic preference for ring- closing via a nucleophilic addition-elimination pathway rather than a SN2-like intramolecular cyclisation. Chapter 3 applies the procedure with CO2 to the preparation of a novel monomer from natural sugar, ᴅ-mannose. ROP was carried out via an organocatalytic approach and a preference for head-tail linkages in the polycarbonate backbone indicated by NMR spectroscopy and supported by DFT calculations. Chapter 4 utilises CO2 to invert the natural stereochemistry of sugars and create a thymidine-based monomer. The thermodynamic parameters of the ROP with 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene (TBD) catalyst are determined and the properties of the polycarbonates investigated to include preliminary cell attachment studies. Finally, chapter 5 details the synthesis of cyclic carbonates from 2- deoxy-ᴅ-ribose and the investigation into the different ROP behaviour of the α- and β- anomers. The ability to tune the polymer properties through copolymerisation with trimethylene carbonate (TMC) is also discussed.