Dada a crescente ameaça à biodiversidade pela destruição e fragmentação dos habitats naturais, sobre-exploração, poluição e introdução de espécies exóticas invasoras, alguns veículos legais buscam preservá-la, como a instituição das Áreas de Preservação Permanente (APP) no Brasil. Elas têm sido alvo de grande discussão quanto à sua configuração com a aprovação da Lei Nº 12.651/2012, a qual alterou o Código Florestal Brasileiro. Assim, este trabalho visa avaliar se as APPs estão sendo capazes de manter a diversidade de mamíferos de médio e grande porte em uma região de agricultura e silvicultura intensivas no nordeste do estado de São Paulo. Além da perspectiva da comunidade, a importância das APPs foi também avaliada através da análise de sua influência na abundância média relativa de Leopardus pardalis (jaguatirica). Foram instaladas armadilhas fotográficas digitais em três paisagens: a primeira compreendendo a Estação Ecológica de Jataí, a Estação Experimental de Luiz Antônio e seu entorno, em Luiz Antônio; a segunda na Fazenda Cara Preta, que possui APP e Reservas Legais (RL) da International Paper (IP), e seu entorno, em São Simão; e a terceira abrangendo a Floresta Estadual de Cajuru, a Fazenda Dois Córregos, com APP e RLs da IP, e seu entorno, em Cajuru e Altinópolis. Foram amostrados 208 pontos aleatoriamente, 169 fora e 39 dentro de APP. As câmeras funcionaram durante 30 dias em cada ponto, 24 horas por dia, de abril a setembro de 2013 na primeira paisagem e de 2014 nas segunda e terceira. A comparação entre a diversidade dentro e fora de APP foi feita através da riqueza observada por curvas de rarefação e do Wildlife Picture Index (WPI), índice de biodiversidade que considera variações na detecção por ser uma média geométrica dos valores de ocupação das espécies observadas. As probabilidades de detecção e ocupação foram estimadas através do modelo de ocupação multiespécies por análise bayesiana, nos programas R 3.1.1 e JAGS 3.4 pelo pacote jagsUI. Na modelagem, foram utilizadas as covariáveis de distância mínima de estrada de terra, chuva, temperatura (linear e quadrática) para detecção, e de quantidade de floresta nativa, silvicultura e cana-de-açúcar em um buffer de 200 ha de cada ponto para ocupação. Os valores de ocupação foram utilizados para calcular o WPI para pontos dentro e fora de APP e para APP de Unidades de Conservação (UC), consideradas detentoras da diversidade esperada para a região. Já a abundância média relativa da jaguatirica (lambda) foi estimada por modelos de Royle & Nichols com as covariáveis distância mínima de estrada de terra, chuva e temperatura para detecção, e APP, grau de proteção e quantidade de floresta nativa, silvicultura e cana-de-açúcar em um buffer de 200 ha de cada ponto para o lambda. Nos dois anos de amostragem, foram registradas 34 espécies de mamíferos, 28 nativas e seis exóticas, nas três paisagens. As curvas de rarefação não apresentaram diferença estatística entre pontos dentro e fora de APP, dentro e fora de UC. Porém, foi necessário mais do que o quádruplo do esforço amostral para que fosse registrada em pontos fora de APP fora de UC uma riqueza semelhante à encontrada nas APPs fora de UC, o que pode ser resultado das populações terem menor densidade na matriz e estarem concentradas nas APPs, indicando a função das mesmas como corredores. A distribuição de valores de WPI para pontos em APP também não apresentou diferença em relação aos pontos fora de APP. Além disso, as APPs de UC apresentaram maior diversidade do que as APPs fora de UC, indicando que as APPs não estão sendo capazes de manter a diversidade de mamíferos de médio e grande porte esperada para a região. Isso pode estar ocorrendo em função da configuração das APPs, as quais são estreitas, tendo, em sua maioria, 30 m. Dessa forma, elas possuem menor heterogeneidade de micro-habitats e são fortemente afetadas pelo efeito de borda, favorecendo espécies generalistas e não permitindo ambiente propício às espécies florestais. Estudos mostram que corredores devem ter no mínimo de 140 a 400 m para apresentarem a mesma comunidade de áreas contínuas. Além disso, a paisagem influencia na função das APPs, pois, nas áreas de estudo, o entorno dos pontos fora de APP possui quase a mesma quantidade de vegetação nativa do que o entorno dos pontos em APP, o que também pode justificar a ausência de diferença entre eles, dado que a floresta nativa teve efeito positivo na ocupação. Por outro lado, as APPs apresentaram efeito positivo na abundância média relativa da jaguatirica e mostraram-se fundamentais para a conservação dessa espécie, principalmente por sua função como habitat e corredores, dado que a jaguatirica mostrou-se extremamente dependente da quantidade de floresta nativa, covariável que melhor explicou a abundância média relativa. Assim, as APPs são importantes para a conservação da mastofauna, a exemplo de sua influência na população da jaguatirica. Contudo, é preciso revisar a configuração atual das APPs na legislação para que elas cumpram totalmente sua função de preservar a biodiversidade. / The habitat loss and fragmentation, the overexploitation, the pollution and the introduction of alien species have threatened the biodiversity and increased extinction rates. Therefore, some legal resolutions aim to preserve it such as the Permanente Preservation Areas (PPA) in Brazil, which have been the focus of a great discussion regarding its configuration after the approval of the law Nº 12.651/2012 that changed the Brazilian Forest Code. Thus, the purpose of this study is to analyse if the PPA are maintaining the diversity of medium and large sized mammals in a region of intensive agriculture and sylviculture in the northeast of the state of São Paulo. Additionally to the community approach, the importance of PPA was assessed through the analysis of its effect on the relative mean abundance of Leopardus pardalis (ocelot). We used camera-traps in three study areas: Jataí Ecological Station, Luiz Antônio Experimental Station and its buffer, in the municipality of Luiz Antônio; the Cara Preta Farm, which has PPA and Legal Reserves (LR) of the International Paper company (IP), and its buffer in São Simão; and the State Forest of Cajuru and the Dois Córregos Farm, which has PPA and LR of the IP, and its buffer, in Cajuru and Altinópolis. A total of 208 points was sampled randomly, 169 outside and 39 inside PPA. Cameras worked during 30 days at each point, 24 hours a day, from April to September in 2013 at the first area and in 2014 at the second and third areas. We used rarefaction curves of observed richness and the Wildlife Picture Index (WPI) to compare the diversity inside and outside PPA. The WPI deals with imperfection detection because it is a geometric mean of the occupancy of observed species. We estimated the detection and occupancy probabilities by the multi-species occupancy model with bayesian analysis in R 3.1.1 and JAGS 3.4 with package jagsUI. We analysed the effect of the site covariates minimum distance of unpaved road, rain and temperature (linear and quadratic) on detection, and of quantities of native forest, sylviculture and sugarcane in a buffer of 200 ha of the sample points on occupancy. The values of occupancy were used to compute the WPI for points inside and outside PPA inside and outside protected areas (PA), which have the diversity expected in the region. Moreover, we estimated the relative mean abundance (lambda) of ocelot by Royle & Nichols models with the effect of site covariates: minimum distance of unpaved road, rain and temperature on detection, and of PPA, degree of protection and quantities of native forest, sylviculture and sugarcane in a buffer of 200 ha of the sample points on lambda. We recorded 34 species of mammals, 28 natives and six alien, in the three landscapes. The rarefaction curves did not showed statistic difference between the points inside and outside PPA, inside and outside PA. However, it was necessary four times the sample effort to record the same richness of points inside PPA outside PA in points outside PPA outside PA. It may have happened due to a low density of the populations in the matrix and a high density inside PPA, suggesting the role of PPA as corridors. The WPI distribution also did not show difference between the points inside and outside PPA. In addition, the PPA of PA had a high diversity when compared with PPA outside PA, suggesting that PPA are not maintaining the diversity of medium and large sized mammals expected in the region. This may be a result of PPAs configuration, because they are narrow, as most are just 30 m wide. Hence, they have less heterogeneity of micro-habitats and are highly affected by edge effect, what benefit generalist species over forest ones. Studies show that corridors must have a minimum of 140 to 400 m to possess the same community of continuous areas. Further, the landscape influences the role of PPA, because the surroundings of points outside PPA have almost the same quantity of native vegetation than the surroundings of points inside PPA in the study areas, what may also explain the lack of difference between them because native forest presented a positive effect on occupancy. On the other hand, PPA had a positive effect on the relative mean abundance of ocelot and were fundamental to the conservation of this species due to its role as habitat and corridors. The quantity of native forest was the covariate that best explained lambda, indicating that ocelots are dependent of dense vegetation. Overall, PPA were considered important to the conservation of mammals given its positive effect on ocelot population. Nevertheless, it is advisable to revise the current configuration of PPA, as is stated in the law, for these areas to really fulfill their role in biodiversity conservation.

A jaguatirica (Leopardus pardalis), assim como a maioria dos felídeos neotropicais, é um animal discreto e de difícil observação na natureza. Usando a técnica de armadilhas fotográficas, os objetivos deste estudo foram identificar possíveis variações na taxa de foto-captura e na distância máxima percorrida da jaguatirica entre períodos sazonais e estimar seu tamanho populacional, através do método de captura-recaptura, na porção norte do Parque Estadual Ilha do Cardoso. A área de vida mínima da jaguatirica e o número de foto-capturas de outras espécies de felídeos também foram documentados. Ao longo do ano, foram identificados oito indivíduos (um macho, cinco fêmeas e dois com sexo não identificado). Observou-se um aumento da taxa de foto-captura da jaguatirica e uma maior distância máxima percorrida na estação seca, sugerindo uma maior movimentação e aumento do tamanho da área de vida da jaguatirica neste período, embora estas variações entre os períodos sazonais tenham sido observadas mais para o macho do que para as fêmeas. Durante um período de 45 noites (13 sítios amostrais) foram foto capturados seis indivíduos, resultando numa estimativa de densidade (± erro padrão) de 0,21 (± 0,03) e 0,4 (± 0,05) indivíduos/km² (dependendo do método usado para calcular a área efetiva amostrada) em uma área de floresta na porção norte da ilha. Estes valores estão dentro da faixa de outras estimativas de densidade no continente. A área de vida mínima estimada para indivíduos foto-capturados em pelo menos três sítios de armadilhas fotográficas foi de 10 km² para o macho e variou de 0,2 a 3,5 km² para quatro fêmeas. Com um esforço total de 1475 armadilhas-noite, a jaguatirica teve o maior número de foto-capturas (91), seguido da onça-parda (22) e do gato-do-mato-pequeno (1). Este foi o primeiro trabalho a levantar informações do tamanho populacional da jaguatirica em uma área de Mata Atlântica insular, confirmando também a presença do gato-do-mato-pequeno nesta ilha. Implicações para o monitoramento e conservação da jaguatirica na Ilha do Cardoso foram discutidas. / The ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), as most neotropical felids, is elusive and difficult to observe in the wild. Using camera trapping, the objectives of this study were to identify variations in the photo capture rate and in the maximum distance moved of ocelots between seasons, and to estimate their abundance by capture-recapture method in the northern part of the Cardoso Island State Park. Minimum home range of the ocelot and the number of photographs of other felids were also recorded. I identified eight individuals (one male, five females and two individuals of sex not confirmed). It was observed an increase of the ocelot photo capture rate and the maximum distance moved in the dry season, suggesting an increase in the movement pattern and in home range use in the drier period, although these variations between seasons had been more observed for the male than the females. In a period of 45 nights (13 trap stations), six individuals were identified and the density estimated (± SE) was 0,21 (± 0,03) and 0,4 (± 0,05) ocelots/km² (depending of the method used to calculate the effective survey area). Those values are within the range of density estimates reported for the species in mainland areas. Minimum home ranges of individuals photographed in at least three trap stations was 10 km² for the male and ranged between 0,2 and 3,5 km² for four females. For a total of 1475 traps night, ocelots had the greatest number of photo capture (91), followed by the puma (22), and the little spotted cat (1). This was the first work to collect data of population size of ocelot in an island area of Coastal Atlantic Forest, also confirming the presence of little spotted cat on this island. Implications for the monitoring and conservation of the ocelots in the Cardoso Island were discussed.

A perda de habitats é, atualmente, a grande ameaça à diversidade de vertebrados terrestres (Crooks, 2002). Muito pouco resta da vegetação nativa no estado de São Paulo, uma vez que é o estado mais desenvolvido do Brasil. Embora sua porção litorânea ainda possua uma grande faixa de Floresta Atlântica, o que restou da vegetação de cerrado em seu interior são pequenos fragmentos, cercados de agricultura e silvicultura. Entretanto, este mosaico de vegetação ainda abriga espécies de médios e grandes mamíferos. Este estudo foi desenvolvido numa área com fragmentos de cerradão, cerrado sensu stricto, floresta semidecídua, além de cultivos de eucalipto e cana-de-açúcar, nos municípios de Santa Rita do Passa-Quatro e Luiz Antônio. Registraram-se 22 espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte por meio de armadilhamento fotográfico, canteiro de pegadas, identificação de fezes, vestígios e avistamentos diretos. Dessas 22 espécies, dez eram carnívoros os quais exploravam o ambiente independentemente de sua cobertura vegetal. Numa abordagem mais espacializada notou-se alguma diferença no uso dos habitats da área de estudo, inclusive do eucaliptal, que se mostrou um habitat importante na dinâmica das populações de carnívoros do local. Dessa forma concluiu-se que ambientes modificados pelas culturas humanas podem representar habitats efetivamente utilizados pela mastofauna de uma região antropizada. Diferentes métodos podem ser usados para monitorar populações ou comunidades faunísticas. O armadilhamento fotográfico e o registro em canteiro de pegadas são bastante utilizados para médios e grandes mamíferos. Os dois métodos possuem viéses na sua amostragem, além de custos e eficiências bem distintos, no entanto o uso conjunto desses dois métodos parece registrar de forma adeqüada a riqueza da mastofauna de uma determinada região. / Habitat\'s loss is the great jeopardy to the diversity of terrestrial vertebrates nowadays (Crooks, 2002). There\'s too little left from the native vegetation in São Paulo State, since it\'s the most developed state in Brazil. Although its coastal area still has a large tract of the Atlantic Forest, just small patches of Brazilian savanna (cerrado) vegetation are found in it, surrounded by agriculture and silviculture. However this vegetation mosaic still shelters both medium and large mammals\' species. This study was held in an area with remnant fragments of woodland savanna (cerradão), cerrado sensu stricto, semideciduous forest as well the cultivation of eucalyptus and sugar-cane in Santa Rita do Passa-Quatro e Luiz Antônio - Brazil. Twenty-two species of large and medium sized mammals were reported by the use of camera trapping, track plots recording, identification of dungs, vestiges and sights. Among these 22 species, ten were carnivore which exploit the environment regardless its vegetation coverage. During a more spatial approach, some difference in the use of the habitats was noted, concerning the study area, including the eucalyptus plantation, which turned out to be an important habitat on the dynamics of the carnivore population of the region. Thus one realizes that environments which were altered by human cultures can represent habitats actually used by mammals from an anthropogenic region. Different procedures can be applied to observe faunal populations or communities. The camera trapping and the track plot recording are often used for medium and large-sized mammals. Both methods present bias in their showing, besides these 2 methods seem to be suitable to the register the wealth of the mammals of a specific region.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Capuchin monkeys are frugivorous-insectivorous primates, although they can explore a wide range of food items. The availability of fruits is a key-aspect of the ecology of these primates, with direct influences over the quality of a given area for the species, and often represents the main determinant of the pattern of range use of groups. In a population-level analysis, however, the pattern of occupation of a fragment by capuchin monkeys is influenced by a broader set of factors, including structural parameters of the habitat. The purpose of this study was to describe the pattern of use of different phytophysiognomies by a population of yellow-breasted capuchins in an Atlantic Forest fragment, relating to the structural aspects and fruit availability of the environment. The study area is in Itaporanga D'Ajuda (11º08'07 "S, 37º18'43" W), in the state of Sergipe, henceforth denoted by Fazenda Rio Fundo (FRF). The fragment has approximately 800 ha of native forest, associated with surrounding plantations of Eucalyptus sp. and bamboos. Among the native forest formations, the vegetation types of shrub-arboreal Restinga (RE), Mata de Tabuleiro (MT), and arboreal Restinga (mature, FM, and secondary, FS). Data collection was carried out monthly between March 2015 and February 2016. The different habitat types of the FRF were compared in relation to the availability of fruits, through phenological monitoring of tree species; and habitat structure, by analyzing its medium height, DBH, density, land cover rate and species composition of the tree community. The use of different habitats by capuchin monkeys, and the occurrence of potential predators of the species, was monitored using 31 camera traps, distributed among habitats. The FM and the FS are the habitats with greater height of canopy and ground cover rate at FRF, in addition to having a pattern of relatively continuous availability of fruit throughout the year. The areas of RE and MT, in turn, are the habitats with the highest dominance indexes in the plant community, as well as the most open and seasonal ones. From a sampling effort of 1,444 trap-day, capuchin monkeys were recorded in 430 videos in 39 separate visits. Nine of the 10 permanent sampling points in FM or FS received visits of the target-species. No record of the presence of monkeys was obtained in MT or RE. We observed that the areas of FM and FS represent preferential habitats for the yellow-breasted capuchins at FRF. This preference is related to the greater height of canopy and ground cover rate of these areas. The advantages conferred by these parameters refer to both the availability of food and support for the locomotion of the primates, and thus, protection against predation. The main threat faced by the population of S. xanthosternos at FRF refers to its limited size, which in turn, stems from the small size and high degree of isolation of the fragment. The presence of several small remaining fragments in the region, however, enables the creation of ecological corridors, which would increase the total area available for the maintenance of the yellow-breasted capuchins, contributing to the conservation of populations of the species in the state. / Macacos-prego são considerados frugívoros-insetívoros, apesar de explorarem uma vasta gama de recursos alimentares. A disponibilidade de frutos é um aspecto-chave da ecologia desses primatas, influenciando diretamente na qualidade da área para as espécies, além de frequentemente ser o principal determinante do padrão de uso da área de vida dos grupos. Numa análise em nível populacional, entretanto, o padrão de ocupação de um fragmento por macacos-prego pode ser influenciado por um conjunto mais amplo de fatores, o que inclui parâmetros estruturais do habitat. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi descrever o padrão de uso de diferentes fitofisionomias por uma população de Sapajus xanthosternos num fragmento de Mata Atlântica, relacionando-o a aspectos estruturais e de disponibilidade de frutos do ambiente. A área de estudo fica no município de Itaporanga D’Ajuda (11º08’07”S, 37º18’43”W), no estado de Sergipe, doravante tratado por Fazenda Rio Fundo (FRF). O fragmento possui cerca de 800 ha de floresta nativa, associados a plantações de Eucalyptus sp. e bambus. Entre as formações florestais nativas, estão as fitofisionomias de Restinga arbustivo-arbórea (RE), Mata de tabuleiro (MT), e Restinga arbórea madura (FM) e secundária (FS). A coleta de dados foi realizada mensalmente entre março de 2015 e fevereiro de 2016. Os diferentes tipos de habitat da FRF foram comparados entre si em relação à disponibilidade de frutos, através do monitoramento fenológico de espécies arbóreas; e à sua estrutura, através da análise de seus valores médios de altura, DAP, densidade, taxa de cobertura do solo e composição florística de indivíduos arbóreos. A utilização dos diferentes tipos de habitat pelos macacos-prego, além da ocorrência de potenciais predadores da espécie, foi monitorada através de 31 armadilhas fotográficas, distribuídas entre os habitats. A FM e a FS são os habitats com maior altura de dossel e taxa de cobertura do solo da FRF, além de apresentarem um padrão de disponibilidade de frutos relativamente contínuo ao longo do ano. As áreas de RE e MT, por sua vez, são os habitats com os maiores índices de dominância na comunidade vegetal, e também os mais abertos e sazonais da FRF. De um esforço amostral de 1.444 armadilhas-dia, o macaco-prego foi registrado em 430 vídeos, em 39 visitas independentes. Nove dos 10 pontos amostrais fixos em FM ou FS receberam visitas da espécie-foco. Não foi obtido nenhum registro da presença dos macacos em MT ou em RE. Foi observado que na FRF as áreas de FM e FS representam habitats preferenciais para os macacos-prego-do-peito-amarelo. Essa preferência parece estar relacionada à maior altura de dossel e taxa de cobertura do solo dessas áreas. As vantagens conferidas por esses parâmetros referem-se tanto à disponibilidade de alimento, com à de suportes para a locomoção dos macacos e, por conseguinte, proteção contra predação. A principal ameaça enfrentada pela população de S. xanthosternos da FRF refere-se ao seu tamanho limitado que, por sua vez, decorre do tamanho reduzido e alto grau de isolamento do fragmento. A presença de vários pequenos fragmentos remanescentes na região, entretanto, possibilita a criação de corredores ecológicos, o que aumentaria a área total disponível para a manutenção do macaco-prego-do-peito-amarelo, colaborando para a conservação das populações da espécie do estado.

Dada a crescente ameaça à biodiversidade pela destruição e fragmentação dos habitats naturais, sobre-exploração, poluição e introdução de espécies exóticas invasoras, alguns veículos legais buscam preservá-la, como a instituição das Áreas de Preservação Permanente (APP) no Brasil. Elas têm sido alvo de grande discussão quanto à sua configuração com a aprovação da Lei Nº 12.651/2012, a qual alterou o Código Florestal Brasileiro. Assim, este trabalho visa avaliar se as APPs estão sendo capazes de manter a diversidade de mamíferos de médio e grande porte em uma região de agricultura e silvicultura intensivas no nordeste do estado de São Paulo. Além da perspectiva da comunidade, a importância das APPs foi também avaliada através da análise de sua influência na abundância média relativa de Leopardus pardalis (jaguatirica). Foram instaladas armadilhas fotográficas digitais em três paisagens: a primeira compreendendo a Estação Ecológica de Jataí, a Estação Experimental de Luiz Antônio e seu entorno, em Luiz Antônio; a segunda na Fazenda Cara Preta, que possui APP e Reservas Legais (RL) da International Paper (IP), e seu entorno, em São Simão; e a terceira abrangendo a Floresta Estadual de Cajuru, a Fazenda Dois Córregos, com APP e RLs da IP, e seu entorno, em Cajuru e Altinópolis. Foram amostrados 208 pontos aleatoriamente, 169 fora e 39 dentro de APP. As câmeras funcionaram durante 30 dias em cada ponto, 24 horas por dia, de abril a setembro de 2013 na primeira paisagem e de 2014 nas segunda e terceira. A comparação entre a diversidade dentro e fora de APP foi feita através da riqueza observada por curvas de rarefação e do Wildlife Picture Index (WPI), índice de biodiversidade que considera variações na detecção por ser uma média geométrica dos valores de ocupação das espécies observadas. As probabilidades de detecção e ocupação foram estimadas através do modelo de ocupação multiespécies por análise bayesiana, nos programas R 3.1.1 e JAGS 3.4 pelo pacote jagsUI. Na modelagem, foram utilizadas as covariáveis de distância mínima de estrada de terra, chuva, temperatura (linear e quadrática) para detecção, e de quantidade de floresta nativa, silvicultura e cana-de-açúcar em um buffer de 200 ha de cada ponto para ocupação. Os valores de ocupação foram utilizados para calcular o WPI para pontos dentro e fora de APP e para APP de Unidades de Conservação (UC), consideradas detentoras da diversidade esperada para a região. Já a abundância média relativa da jaguatirica (lambda) foi estimada por modelos de Royle & Nichols com as covariáveis distância mínima de estrada de terra, chuva e temperatura para detecção, e APP, grau de proteção e quantidade de floresta nativa, silvicultura e cana-de-açúcar em um buffer de 200 ha de cada ponto para o lambda. Nos dois anos de amostragem, foram registradas 34 espécies de mamíferos, 28 nativas e seis exóticas, nas três paisagens. As curvas de rarefação não apresentaram diferença estatística entre pontos dentro e fora de APP, dentro e fora de UC. Porém, foi necessário mais do que o quádruplo do esforço amostral para que fosse registrada em pontos fora de APP fora de UC uma riqueza semelhante à encontrada nas APPs fora de UC, o que pode ser resultado das populações terem menor densidade na matriz e estarem concentradas nas APPs, indicando a função das mesmas como corredores. A distribuição de valores de WPI para pontos em APP também não apresentou diferença em relação aos pontos fora de APP. Além disso, as APPs de UC apresentaram maior diversidade do que as APPs fora de UC, indicando que as APPs não estão sendo capazes de manter a diversidade de mamíferos de médio e grande porte esperada para a região. Isso pode estar ocorrendo em função da configuração das APPs, as quais são estreitas, tendo, em sua maioria, 30 m. Dessa forma, elas possuem menor heterogeneidade de micro-habitats e são fortemente afetadas pelo efeito de borda, favorecendo espécies generalistas e não permitindo ambiente propício às espécies florestais. Estudos mostram que corredores devem ter no mínimo de 140 a 400 m para apresentarem a mesma comunidade de áreas contínuas. Além disso, a paisagem influencia na função das APPs, pois, nas áreas de estudo, o entorno dos pontos fora de APP possui quase a mesma quantidade de vegetação nativa do que o entorno dos pontos em APP, o que também pode justificar a ausência de diferença entre eles, dado que a floresta nativa teve efeito positivo na ocupação. Por outro lado, as APPs apresentaram efeito positivo na abundância média relativa da jaguatirica e mostraram-se fundamentais para a conservação dessa espécie, principalmente por sua função como habitat e corredores, dado que a jaguatirica mostrou-se extremamente dependente da quantidade de floresta nativa, covariável que melhor explicou a abundância média relativa. Assim, as APPs são importantes para a conservação da mastofauna, a exemplo de sua influência na população da jaguatirica. Contudo, é preciso revisar a configuração atual das APPs na legislação para que elas cumpram totalmente sua função de preservar a biodiversidade. / The habitat loss and fragmentation, the overexploitation, the pollution and the introduction of alien species have threatened the biodiversity and increased extinction rates. Therefore, some legal resolutions aim to preserve it such as the Permanente Preservation Areas (PPA) in Brazil, which have been the focus of a great discussion regarding its configuration after the approval of the law Nº 12.651/2012 that changed the Brazilian Forest Code. Thus, the purpose of this study is to analyse if the PPA are maintaining the diversity of medium and large sized mammals in a region of intensive agriculture and sylviculture in the northeast of the state of São Paulo. Additionally to the community approach, the importance of PPA was assessed through the analysis of its effect on the relative mean abundance of Leopardus pardalis (ocelot). We used camera-traps in three study areas: Jataí Ecological Station, Luiz Antônio Experimental Station and its buffer, in the municipality of Luiz Antônio; the Cara Preta Farm, which has PPA and Legal Reserves (LR) of the International Paper company (IP), and its buffer in São Simão; and the State Forest of Cajuru and the Dois Córregos Farm, which has PPA and LR of the IP, and its buffer, in Cajuru and Altinópolis. A total of 208 points was sampled randomly, 169 outside and 39 inside PPA. Cameras worked during 30 days at each point, 24 hours a day, from April to September in 2013 at the first area and in 2014 at the second and third areas. We used rarefaction curves of observed richness and the Wildlife Picture Index (WPI) to compare the diversity inside and outside PPA. The WPI deals with imperfection detection because it is a geometric mean of the occupancy of observed species. We estimated the detection and occupancy probabilities by the multi-species occupancy model with bayesian analysis in R 3.1.1 and JAGS 3.4 with package jagsUI. We analysed the effect of the site covariates minimum distance of unpaved road, rain and temperature (linear and quadratic) on detection, and of quantities of native forest, sylviculture and sugarcane in a buffer of 200 ha of the sample points on occupancy. The values of occupancy were used to compute the WPI for points inside and outside PPA inside and outside protected areas (PA), which have the diversity expected in the region. Moreover, we estimated the relative mean abundance (lambda) of ocelot by Royle & Nichols models with the effect of site covariates: minimum distance of unpaved road, rain and temperature on detection, and of PPA, degree of protection and quantities of native forest, sylviculture and sugarcane in a buffer of 200 ha of the sample points on lambda. We recorded 34 species of mammals, 28 natives and six alien, in the three landscapes. The rarefaction curves did not showed statistic difference between the points inside and outside PPA, inside and outside PA. However, it was necessary four times the sample effort to record the same richness of points inside PPA outside PA in points outside PPA outside PA. It may have happened due to a low density of the populations in the matrix and a high density inside PPA, suggesting the role of PPA as corridors. The WPI distribution also did not show difference between the points inside and outside PPA. In addition, the PPA of PA had a high diversity when compared with PPA outside PA, suggesting that PPA are not maintaining the diversity of medium and large sized mammals expected in the region. This may be a result of PPAs configuration, because they are narrow, as most are just 30 m wide. Hence, they have less heterogeneity of micro-habitats and are highly affected by edge effect, what benefit generalist species over forest ones. Studies show that corridors must have a minimum of 140 to 400 m to possess the same community of continuous areas. Further, the landscape influences the role of PPA, because the surroundings of points outside PPA have almost the same quantity of native vegetation than the surroundings of points inside PPA in the study areas, what may also explain the lack of difference between them because native forest presented a positive effect on occupancy. On the other hand, PPA had a positive effect on the relative mean abundance of ocelot and were fundamental to the conservation of this species due to its role as habitat and corridors. The quantity of native forest was the covariate that best explained lambda, indicating that ocelots are dependent of dense vegetation. Overall, PPA were considered important to the conservation of mammals given its positive effect on ocelot population. Nevertheless, it is advisable to revise the current configuration of PPA, as is stated in the law, for these areas to really fulfill their role in biodiversity conservation.

The Internet of Things is a constantly developing field. With advancements of algorithms for object detection and classification for images and videos, the possibilities of what can be made with small and cost efficient edge-devices are increasing. This work presents how camera traps and deep learning can be utilized for surveillance in remote environments, such as animal sanctuaries in the African Savannah. The camera traps connect to a smart surveillance network where images and sensor-data are analysed. The analysis can then be used to produce valuable information, such as the location of endangered animals or unauthorized humans, to park rangers working to protect the wildlife in these animal sanctuaries. Different motion detection algorithms are tested and evaluated based on related research within the subject. The work made in this thesis builds upon two previous theses made within Project Ngulia. The implemented surveillance system in this project consists of camera sensors, a database, a REST API, a classification service, a FTP-server and a web-dashboard for displaying sensor data and resulting images. A contribution of this work is an end-to-end smart surveillance system that can use different camera sources to produce valuable information to stakeholders. The camera software developed in this work is targeting the ESP32 based M5Stack Timer Camera and runs a motion detection algorithm based on Self-Organizing Maps. This improves the selection of data that is fed to the image classifier on the server. This thesis also contributes with an algorithm for doing iterative image classifications that handles the issues of objects taking up small parts of an image, making them harder to classify correctly.

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Many wildlife populations globally are experiencing unprecedented declines, and without accurate and precise estimates of abundance, we will not be able to conserve these vulnerable species. Remote cameras have rapidly advanced as wildlife monitoring tools and may provide accurate and precise estimates of abundance that improve upon traditional methods. Using remote cameras to estimate abundance may be less expensive, less intrusive, less dangerous, and less time consuming than other methods. While it is apparent that remote cameras have a place in the future of wildlife monitoring, research, and management, many questions remain concerning the proper use of these tools. In an effort to answer some of these questions, we used remote cameras to study a population of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) in Utah, USA from 2012 to 2014. In Chapter 1, we compared methods using remote cameras against 2 traditional methods of estimating abundance. In Chapter 2, we evaluated the relationship between deployment time of cameras and proportion of photos needed to be analyzed to obtain precise estimates of abundance. We found that methods using remote cameras compared favorably to traditional methods of estimating abundance, and provided a number of valuable advantages. In addition, we found that remote cameras can produce precise estimates of abundance in a relatively short sampling period. Finally, we identified the optimal sampling period to produce precise estimates of abundance for our study population. Our findings can help researchers better utilize the potential of remote cameras, making them a more suitable alternative to traditional wildlife monitoring.

Many wildlife populations globally are experiencing unprecedented declines, and without accurate and precise estimates of abundance, we will not be able to conserve these vulnerable species. Remote cameras have rapidly advanced as wildlife monitoring tools and may provide accurate and precise estimates of abundance that improve upon traditional methods. Using remote cameras to estimate abundance may be less expensive, less intrusive, less dangerous, and less time consuming than other methods. While it is apparent that remote cameras have a place in the future of wildlife monitoring, research, and management, many questions remain concerning the proper use of these tools. In an effort to answer some of these questions, we used remote cameras to study a population of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) in Utah, USA from 2012 to 2014. In Chapter 1, we compared methods using remote cameras against 2 traditional methods of estimating abundance. In Chapter 2, we evaluated the relationship between deployment time of cameras and proportion of photos needed to be analyzed to obtain precise estimates of abundance. We found that methods using remote cameras compared favorably to traditional methods of estimating abundance, and provided a number of valuable advantages. In addition, we found that remote cameras can produce precise estimates of abundance in a relatively short sampling period. Finally, we identified the optimal sampling period to produce precise estimates of abundance for our study population. Our findings can help researchers better utilize the potential of remote cameras, making them a more suitable alternative to traditional wildlife monitoring.

Tigers (Panthera tigris Linnaeus, 1758) are in danger of extinction. Their populations have declined from ~100,000 to only ~3,000 individuals in a century and their habitat has shrunk to less than 7% of the historic range. Of the five extant tiger subspecies, the Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae Pocock, 1929) is the most seriously threatened. Currently determined as Critically Endangered under IUCN criteria, the Sumatran tiger is likely to become extinct unless effective conservation measures are enacted. Threats to the tiger include habitat destruction, killing due to conflict with humans and livestock, and poaching for illegal wildlife trade. Long-term survival of Sumatran tigers depends largely on the effectiveness of current conservation efforts in every tiger landscape. Successful conservation and management require accurate information on ecology of the species upon which decisions can be based. This study investigated basic ecological aspects of tigers and developed strategies for management and restoration to improve tiger viability in the Central Sumatra landscape. This landscape is comprised of natural forests and plantations managed for timber and agricultural commodities. The first chapter assesses the variation in tiger abundance across forest types in Southern Riau, and over time in Tesso Nilo National Park, all in Central Sumatra. Using camera traps, my team and I systematically sampled five blocks representing three major forest types in the region: peat land, flat lowland, and hilly lowland. I found that tiger abundance varied by forest type and through time. Excluding two sampling blocks where no tigers were photographed, the lowest tiger density was in peat land forest of Kerumutan, and the highest density was in the flat lowland forest of Tesso Nilo. Repeated sampling in the newly established Tesso Nilo National Park documented a trend of increasing tiger density (SE) from 0.90 (0.38) individuals/100 km2 in 2005 to 1.70 (0.66) individuals/100 km2 in 2008. Overall, tiger densities from this study were lower than most previous estimates from other parts of Sumatra. The trend of increasing tiger density in Tesso Nilo, however, suggests that the tiger population could be augmented by protection of habitats that were previously logged and severely disturbed. The second chapter examines the occupancy and habitat-use of the tiger across the major landcover types (natural forest, acacia plantation, oilpalm plantation, rubber plantation, and mixed agriculture). I found that tigers used some plantation areas, although they significantly preferred forests over plantations. In all landcover types, sites with tiger detections had thicker understory cover than sites without tiger detection. Modeling tiger occupancy while recognizing that probability of detection is not always perfect, I found that tiger occupancy covaried positively and significantly with altitude and negatively, but not significantly, with distance-to-forest-cores. Probability of habitat use by tigers covaried positively and significantly with understory cover and altitude, and negatively and significantly with human settlement and landcover rank. The results suggested that with adjustments in plantation management, tigers could use or roam through plantations within the habitat mosaic provided that the plantations had adequate understory cover and low level of human activity. They also could use riparian forests (as corridors) and smaller forest patches (as stepping stones) to travel between the main habitat patches across the forest and plantation landscape. The third chapter investigates the ecological characteristics and possible inter-specific interactions among wild felids, including tigers and smaller cats, based on data collected using systematic camera trapping in combination with information on their natural history. I found that despite overlap in resource needs of the five felid species, each appears adapted to specific environmental conditions allowing coexistence with other felids. The five felid species used statistically different elevations, with the golden cat found to inhabit the highest elevation. Two-species occupancy models showed that only leopard cats were found to co-occur with other felid species more frequently than expected by chance under independence. Species of similar size or eating similar-sized prey generally tended to have low coefficients of temporal activity overlap, suggesting avoidance. Temporal avoidance is likely occurring in three pairs of felids, namely clouded leopards and golden cats, clouded leopards and marbled cats, and marbled cats and leopard cats. Based on the differences in morphological and ecological characteristics, and on patterns of spatial and temporal occurrence, I identified six possible mechanisms by which felids in Central Sumatra maintain coexistence. I discussed the implications of this study for management, focusing on how to balance diversity and abundance of felids. The fourth chapter presents the tiger distribution models as a case study to illustrate the importance of accounting for uncertainty in species distribution mapping. I applied four modeling approaches, differing in how the response variable (tiger presence) is constructed and used in the models. I compared the performance and output of different models based on the relative importance of variables, descriptive statistics of the predictions, cross comparison between models using an error matrix, and validation using tiger presence data collected from independent surveys. All models consistently identified forest area within the grid as one of the most important variables explaining tiger probability of occurrence. Three models identified altitude as another important factor. While the four models were consistent in predicting relatively high probability of tiger occurrence for high elevation forest areas such as Rimbang Baling and Bukit Tigapuluh, they generally had a lower level of agreement in predictions for low elevation areas, particularly the peat land in the northeastern part of the study area. Based on the results of cross evaluation of the predictions among models and validation with the independent data, I considered the occupancy model to be superior to the others. If data collection format permits, I advocate the use of occupancy instead of the other modeling techniques to develop predictive species distribution maps. The last chapter constructs a strategy to restore the tiger population across the ecosystem of Central Sumatra through integration of knowledge on tiger ecology from previous chapters with consideration of the ecological conditions of the landscape in the region. The strategy combines existing knowledge of tiger conservation and regional ecosystem restoration. It recognizes the limitations and challenges of traditional nature protection and considers existing and new opportunities. Emerging opportunities and new mechanisms, such as direct and indirect economic incentives for nature conservation and restoration, are taken into account. These, coupled with increased awareness of the stakeholders, better policies and implementation of good governance, and the willingness and know-how to maintain coexistence with wildlife among the local people, are expected to support and accelerate the recovery of tigers and their ecosystem. / Ph. D.