Les composites carbone/carbone présentent de propriétés thermomécaniques à hautes températures qui les rendent particulièrement adaptés à l’ablation ou à la friction. Leur sensibilité à l’oxydation dès 400°C a conduit à envisager leur dopage en éléments réfractaires inoxydables ou à température d’oxydation élevée. Le procédé sol-gel a permis d’introduire environ 1 % volumique d’oxyde ou de nitrure de titane ou d’aluminium dans leur matrice. Les nitrures sont obtenus par nitruration carbothermique des films d’oxydes. Deux types de sols ont été utilisés : des sols « standard » et des sols enrichis en saccharose. Le saccharose est ajouté pour prévenir la consommation du pyrocarbone lors de la nitruration. Il a par ailleurs une influence sur l’avancement de la nitruration. Les composites chargés sont ensuite densifiés par voie gazeuse, ce qui induit des transformations de phases prévues par la thermodynamique : les films de nitrure de titane sont partiellement carburés (formation de carbonitrure), et les films d’oxyde de titane sont réduits (formation d’oxycarbure). Les dépôts à base d’aluminium sont plus stables et ne subissent aucune transformation. La diffusivité thermique des composites réalisés est faiblement impactée par les charges introduites, alors que les résistances en traction/compression sont sensiblement augmentées. Par ailleurs, une rigidification des composites est observée. Leur cinétique d’oxydation est ralentie. Les composites enrichis en alumine et nitrure d’aluminium présentent des vitesses de perte de masse divisées par 2 par rapport à la référence C/C. Toutes ces propriétés sont liées directement ou non à la composition des sols, et plus particulièrement à sa teneur en saccharose. Il a en effet été montré que les sols qui en contiennent ont tendance à gélifier en surface du composite, ce qui gêne la diffusion des gaz précurseurs au cœur du composite lors de la densification. La porosité finale s’en trouve modifiée. Cette dernière a une influence non négligeable sur le comportement en compression, la diffusivité thermique et la cinétique d’oxydation des composites élaborés. / Carbon/carbon composites exhibit excellent mechanical and thermal properties at high temperature that make them espe-cially suitable for ablation or friction pieces. Their sensitivity toward oxidation above 400°C has lead to the will of doping them with refractory ceramics that are nonoxidizable or with a high oxidation temperature. The sol-gel process allowed to introduce 1 % in volume of titanium or aluminum oxide or nitride in the matrix. Nitrides are obtained by carbothermal nitridation of the oxide films. Two types of sols were used: the “standard” ones and those with extra sucrose. Sucrose is added to prevent pyrocarbon consumption during the nitridation. Furthermore, it was shown that it has an impact on the nitridation rate. Charged composites are then densified by Chemical Vapor Infiltration, which induces phases transforma-tions that were predicted by thermodynamics: titanium nitride films are partially carburized (formation of titanium carbonitride) and titanium dioxide films are reduced (formation of titanium oxycarbide). Aluminum-based films are more stable and don’t undergo any transformation. Thermal diffusivity of the as-synthesized composites is not much modified by the addition of these ceramics while the tensile and compressive strength are slightly increased. By the way, composites are hardened. Their oxidation kinetics is slowed down. Aluminum-rich composites exhibit a weight loss divided by two compared to the C/C reference. All those properties are directly, or not, linked to the composition of the sols, in particular to their sucrose content. Indeed, it was shown that sucrose-containing sols rather jellify on the surface of the composite, thus preventing the diffusion of precursor gases to the heart of the pieces. The final porosity is then modified. The porosity has an important impact on the compressive strength, thermal diffusivity and oxidation kinetics of the synthesized composites.

Electrically detected magnetic resonance (EDMR) is a sensitive spectroscopic technique, which can be used to readout few to single electron spins in semiconductor and carbon nanodevices for applications in solid state quantum information processing (QIP). Since only electrically active defects contribute to the EDMR signal, this technique can be used further to investigate defects and impurities in photovoltaic devices, in which they limit the sunlight-to-energy conversion efficiency significantly. Here, I employ X-band EDMR for semiconductor defect analysis and identify the most important recombination centres in Czochralski silicon with oxide precipitates, which can be intentionally grown to confine detrimental metallic impurities to inactive regions of the wafer in order to serve as a defect-free substrate for modern silicon photovoltaic devices. Those experiments show that oxide precipitation is accompanied by the formation of silicon dangling bonds. Furthermore, I describe a very promising route towards the fabrication and readout of few to single electron spins in carbon nanotube devices, which can be characterised structurally via transmission electron microscopy in order to relate their electrical and spin properties with their structure. Finally, I employ EDMR to read out electron spin states in donor-doped silicon field-effect transistors as a prerequisite for their application in QIP. I report on a novel cryogenic probe head for EDMR experiments in resonant microwave cavities operating at 0.35 T (9.7 GHz, X-band) and 3.34 T (94 GHz, W-band). This approach overcomes the inherent limitations of conventional X-band EDMR and permits the investigation of paramagnetic states with a higher spectroscopic resolution and signal intensity. Both advantages are demonstrated and discussed. I further report on a novel mechanism giving rise to the EDMR effect in donor-doped silicon field-effect transistors, which is capable of explaining why the EDMR signal intensities of the conduction electrons are enhanced by a factor of ∼100, while the donor resonance signals increase by a factor of ∼20 from X- to W-band only. The spin-relaxation and dephasing times are extracted from a series of pulsed-EDMR measurements and confirm this model. The author gratefully acknowledges funding from Trinity College Oxford, Department of Materials, EPSRC DTA, and Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung e.V. (Begabtenförderung).

Les tokamaks visent à réaliser la fusion contrôlée de noyaux de deutérium et de tritium par le confinement magnétique d'un plasma chaud. L'interaction entre le plasma et les parois a été étudiée en détail pour le tokamak Tore Supra. Au cours des décharges, le plasma interagit fortement avec le limiteur, formé de milliers de tuiles en composite carbone/carbone. L'érosion de ces tuiles par les flux de particules du plasma mène à la formation de co-dépôts de carbone et de deutérium qu'il est essentiel de limiter. Nous avons effectué une étude multi-échelle, principalement avec les différents outils de la microscopie électronique, sur des tuiles provenant du limiteur de Tore Supra. Une analyse des co-dépôts a permis de mettre en évidence leur topographie en forme de pointes, orientées dans une même direction quelque soit la position de la tuile sur le limiteur. L'étude de la surface de tuiles appartenant à des zones majoritairement érodées a révélé la présence d'une striation périodique de surface. Ces deux phénomènes ont été mis en relation avec la direction des flux et l'effet de la gaine faiblement magnétisée de Tore Supra a été mis en évidence. L'analyse des dépôts présents dans les interstices entre les tuiles a révélé une physique propre à ces interstices permettant la formation de dépôts en profondeur. Des nanoparticules graphitiques sphériques ont été observées, signe d'une croissance homogène locale en phase plasma. Nous avons développé des méthodes de mesure des volumes de dépôt et des volumes érodés, menant à l'établissement d'un bilan carbone et à l'évaluation de la masse de deutérium piégé, en bon accord avec les mesures in-situ réalisées dans Tore Supra. / Tokamaks are devices aiming at achieving controlled fusion of deuterium and tritium by magnetically confining a hot plasma. The interaction between the plasma and the inner walls is a crucial issue and has been studied in detail in Tore Supra. During discharges the plasma strongly interacts with limiter, designed with thousands of carbon tiles (C/C composite). The plasma particle fluxes erode the tiles, leading to co-deposition of carbon and deuterium that should be limited. We have performed a multi-scale study of tiles extracted from the Tore Supra limiter, mainly using electron microscopy. The analysis of the co-deposits has revealed a tip-shaped topography, tips being oriented in the same direction wherever the tile over the limiter. Analyses of tiles extracted from erosion-dominated zones have revealed the presence of a periodic ripple on their surfaces. Both phenomena have been related with the direction of ion fluxes and the effect of the weakly magnetized sheath of Tore Supra has been shown. Analyses of the deposits inside the gaps in-between the tiles have revealed the existence of specific processes leading to the formation of deposits deeply inside the gaps. Graphitic nano-particles have been observed, showing the existence of local homogeneous growth processes. Finally, by measuring the deposit volume and the C/C composite eroded volume we have obtained an inventory of both carbon and deuterium which is consistent with the analyses of Tore Supra in-situ measurements.

Les composites Carbone/Carbone haute densité sont généralement obtenus par voie gazeuse ou liquide (sous une pression de pyrolyse de 100 MPa), suivant des procédés contraignants. L’imprégnation de préformes fibreuses par des brais liquéfiés, sous une pression limitée à 10 MPa, permettrait de réduire certaines contraintes d’élaboration à condition de trouver des procédés pour améliorer les rendements de densification. La solution proposée dans le cadre de cette thèse est d’augmenter fortement la densité en une première étape, grâce à des techniques de densification moins classiques. Une étude bibliographique approfondie a permis de déterminer les caractéristiques importantes des brais, les différents paramètres influençant les densifications par voie liquide et des techniques de pré-densification. La cohérence entre les résultats de plusieurs techniques de caractérisation des brais, est mise en évidence lors du suivi expérimental de l’évolution de divers brais vers un carbone graphitique, sous pression modérée. Cette étude expérimentale concernant les précurseurs de matrice aboutit à la sélection d’un brai remplaçant au brai de référence A240 et au choix des paramètres du protocole de pyrolyse sous pression modérée. L’influence du réseau poreux de la préforme sur le comportement du brai pendant la densification est soulignée en comparant les rendements de densification dans une préforme 3D orthogonale et dans une préforme aiguilletée. L’intérêt des densifications mixtes (avec caléfaction, imprégnation de poudres ou de brai mésophasique) est jugé par rapport à la densité et à la microstructure des composites obtenus. Les procédés originaux de densification hybride réalisés sur les préformes aiguilletées se révèlent efficaces, puisqu’une densité apparente supérieure à 1,80 et une porosité inférieure à 15% est atteinte après quatre cycles de densification par du brai isotrope. Des mesures thermiques sur les composites C/C obtenus illustrent la relation entre microstructure et conductivité thermique. Il semble ainsi possible de moduler les propriétés macroscopiques des composites C/C grâce à l’utilisation de procédés permettant d’élaborer des composites C/C à matrices carbonées mixtes. / High density Carbon/Carbon composites are usually prepared by chemical vapor impregnation or by liquid pitch impregnation under high pressure (100 MPa). As these processes are complex and costly, an alternative moderate pressure (P < 10 MPa) impregnation process may be attractive, provided the densification yield is strongly improved. This doctoral work proposes an original process, including a pre-densification step, which leads to a significant increase of the C/C composite final density. Essential characteristics of pitches, various parameters influencing liquid pitch densification and processes for the pre-densification step are determined from bibliographical study. Consistent changes of the different physico-chemical characteristics are observed throughout the evolution of pitches to graphitic carbon, under moderate pressure. This experimental study on matrix precursors leads to the selection of a particular pitch as substitute of A240 pitch and to the determination of a specific pyrolysis procedure under moderate pressure. Influence of porous network in preforms on the pitch behaviour during densification is outlined by the comparison of densification yields in both an orthogonal 3D preform and a needled preform. Hybrid densification processes (with film-boiling process, powder impregnation, mesophasic pitch impregnation) are evaluated through the final density and the microstructure of elaborated composites. High density C/C composites, with an apparent density higher than 1.80 g.cm-3 and an open porosity lower than 15%, have been prepared from a pre-densified needled preform, after four densification cycles with liquid isotropic pitch, under moderate pressure. Thermal properties measurements on these C/C composites confirm the strong relationship between microstructure and thermal conductivity. It seems possible to tailor the macroscopic properties of C/C composites, thanks to hybrid carbonaceous matrices.

Ces travaux de thèse portent sur la physico-chimie de l'interface fibre/matrice appliquée aux composites Carbone/Carbone. La surface des fibres de carbone est modifiée par divers traitements de surface (voie gazeuse et voie humide). L'impact de ces différents procédés sur l'état de surface des fibres a été évalué par chromatographie gazeuse en phase inverse à dilution infinie, MEB, AFM, MET, RAMAN… Suite à ces caractérisations, des traitements de surface ont été retenus pour la réalisation de composite C/C. Les propriétés notamment mécaniques des matériaux composites à interfaces modulées (force de la liaison fibre/matrice) ont pu être évaluées. Finalement, il a pu être établi une relation entre modifications de surface des fibres de carbone et comportement macroscopique des composites C/C. / This work focuses on the physical chemistry of the fiber/matrix interface applied to composites carbon/carbon. The surface of carbon fibers was modified by various surface treatments. The carbon fibers surface variation was evaluated by inverse gas chromatography at infinite dilution, SEM, AFM, TEM, Raman... After these characterizations, surface treatments were selected for the realization of C/C composites. The mechanical properties of composites at modulated interfaces (fibers/matrix bonding) were evaluated. Finally, a correlation between surface modification of carbon fibers and macroscopic behavior of composite C/C was established.

Carbon-carbon bond formation reactions catalyzed by transition metals represent one of the most versatile and efficient strategies in organic synthesis. The catalytic transformations contribute to the development of methodologies that are more environmentally benign and with high atomic economy. Despite the progress in this field in recent years, the development of new and more efficient strategies of synthesis continues to be one of the main challenges of organic chemistry. In the present PhD thesis the Rh(I)-catalyzed [2+2+2] cycloaddition reaction of different macrocyclic and acyclic substrates containing double and/or triple bond in their structure are studied. On the other hand, Matsuda-Heck reactions and Suzuki-Miyaura cross-couplings using diazonium salts as electrophiles under Pd(II) catalysis with mild reaction conditions and a totally aqueous medium have been studied. Palladium-catalyzed carbon-carbon bonds a good alternative both in terms of cost and activity is the use of nickel catalysts. Finally, new Ni(0) complexes with macrocyclic and open-chain ligands containing double and triple bonds have been synthesized and completely characterized. Their activity in Suzuki cross-coupling reactions is then studied. / Les reaccions de formació d’enllaços carboni-carboni catalitzades per metalls de transició representen una de les estratègies més versàtils i eficients en síntesi orgànica. Les transformacions catalítiques contribueixen al desenvolupament de metodologies més benignes amb el mediambient i proporcionen una elevada economia atòmica. Encara que siguin molts els avenços fets en aquest camp en els últims anys, el desenvolupament de noves i més eficients estratègies de síntesi segueixen essent un dels reptes principals de la química orgànica. En la present tesi s'ha estudiat la reacció de cicloaddició [2+2+2] catalitzada per Rh(I) de diferents substrats macrocíclics i acíclics contenint dobles i/o triples enllaços. Per altra banda, s’han portat a terme reaccions de Matsuda-Heck i acoblaments creuats de Suzuki-Miyaura utilitzant sals de diazoni com a electròfils sota catàlisi per Pd(II) emprant condicions suaus de reacció i en medi totalment aquós. Una bona alternativa al pal•ladi en termes econòmics i d’activitat és l’ús de catalitzadors de níquel. Finalment s’han sintetitzat i caracteritzat estructuralment nous complexos de Ni(0) amb lligands macrocíclics i de cadena oberta contenint diferents insaturacions i s'ha estudiat la seva activitat catalítica en reaccions de Suzuki.

Investigation of the catalytic formation, reactivity and synthetic scope of sp³-gem-organodimetallic palladio(II)/main group metal (main group metal = tributylstannyl, dialkylalumino) alkane species has been carried out. Insight was expanded regarding the inter- and intramolecular reactivity of vinylmetallic reagents in presence of transition metal catalysts. New Pd-catalysed methodologies for carbon-carbon bond formation were developed, such as cyclopropanation of strained olefins, as well as tandem vinylalane arylation/1,2-methyl transfer and 1,2-diarylation. On the one hand, geminal π-allylpalladio(II)/tributylstannylalkane intermediates are produced by oxidative addition of Pd(0) catalysts to α-tributylstannylpropenyl acetate derivatives. They adopt ambiphilic behaviour depending on the transition metal pre-catalyst, presence or absence of phosphine ligands, and reaction temperature. In presence of tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) with additional bidentate ligand, the carbenoid reactivity of these gem-organobismetallic species is exposed by reaction with dimethyl malonate. Deuterium-labeling studies demonstrated sequential functionalisation of the C-Sn and C-Pd bonds. Conversely, phosphine-free catalyst bis(dibenzylideneacetone)palladium(0) uncovers metal-carbene reactivity, and dimerisation and strained alkene cyclopropanation reactions are observed. The nature of the palladium catalyst controls the reactivity of the carbenoid species. Finally, bis(cyclooctadienerhodium(I) chloride) catalytically activates the alkenylstannane moiety, leaving the allylic acetate leaving group available for further transformations. On the other hand, gem-disubstituted trifluoromethanesulfonyloxy- and iodopalladio(II)/ dialkylaluminoneopentane species are generated by intramolecular migratory insertion of 2,2-disubstituted-1-butenyldialkylalanes with σ-arylpalladium(II) triflate and iodide intermediates. Using excess Lewis-basic 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane, electron-rich tris(para-methoxyphenyl)phosphine ligand and acetonitrile as solvent, tandem arylation/1,2-alkyl migration from aluminum to carbon affords 7-substituted-1-ethyl-1-methylindanes containing an all-carbon quaternary stereogenic centre in good yields. This reaction is tolerant of 6-aryl methyl ethers, thioethers and trimethylsilanes. Deuterium labeling established that protiodealumination of the key neopentyl(methyl)aluminum triflate intermediate is caused by the acetonitrile solvent. The organodimetallic species in that study were shown to be configurationally stable, hence the stereospecificity of the process that proceeds via carbopalladation, transmetalation and reductive elimination of an alkylpalladium(II) intermediate. When applied to 1-naphthyl triflate-tethered vinylalanes, the same reaction conditions mediate stereospecific 1,2-diarylation, leading to 2,3,3a,4-tetrahydro-1H-cyclopenta[def]phenanthrenes in excellent yields. The influence of DABCO, tether length and solvent polarity was studied. Selective tandem arylation/1,2-methyl migration could also be achieved in non-polar solvent in absence of Lewis base. While steric properties took precedence over electronic considerations when inducing product selection, preagostic C-H···Pd interactions were postulated to facilitate 1,3-metal migration in the production of 1H-cyclopenta[def]phenanthrene derivatives.

Investigation of the catalytic formation, reactivity and synthetic scope of sp³-gem-organodimetallic palladio(II)/main group metal (main group metal = tributylstannyl, dialkylalumino) alkane species has been carried out. Insight was expanded regarding the inter- and intramolecular reactivity of vinylmetallic reagents in presence of transition metal catalysts. New Pd-catalysed methodologies for carbon-carbon bond formation were developed, such as cyclopropanation of strained olefins, as well as tandem vinylalane arylation/1,2-methyl transfer and 1,2-diarylation. On the one hand, geminal π-allylpalladio(II)/tributylstannylalkane intermediates are produced by oxidative addition of Pd(0) catalysts to α-tributylstannylpropenyl acetate derivatives. They adopt ambiphilic behaviour depending on the transition metal pre-catalyst, presence or absence of phosphine ligands, and reaction temperature. In presence of tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) with additional bidentate ligand, the carbenoid reactivity of these gem-organobismetallic species is exposed by reaction with dimethyl malonate. Deuterium-labeling studies demonstrated sequential functionalisation of the C-Sn and C-Pd bonds. Conversely, phosphine-free catalyst bis(dibenzylideneacetone)palladium(0) uncovers metal-carbene reactivity, and dimerisation and strained alkene cyclopropanation reactions are observed. The nature of the palladium catalyst controls the reactivity of the carbenoid species. Finally, bis(cyclooctadienerhodium(I) chloride) catalytically activates the alkenylstannane moiety, leaving the allylic acetate leaving group available for further transformations. On the other hand, gem-disubstituted trifluoromethanesulfonyloxy- and iodopalladio(II)/ dialkylaluminoneopentane species are generated by intramolecular migratory insertion of 2,2-disubstituted-1-butenyldialkylalanes with σ-arylpalladium(II) triflate and iodide intermediates. Using excess Lewis-basic 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane, electron-rich tris(para-methoxyphenyl)phosphine ligand and acetonitrile as solvent, tandem arylation/1,2-alkyl migration from aluminum to carbon affords 7-substituted-1-ethyl-1-methylindanes containing an all-carbon quaternary stereogenic centre in good yields. This reaction is tolerant of 6-aryl methyl ethers, thioethers and trimethylsilanes. Deuterium labeling established that protiodealumination of the key neopentyl(methyl)aluminum triflate intermediate is caused by the acetonitrile solvent. The organodimetallic species in that study were shown to be configurationally stable, hence the stereospecificity of the process that proceeds via carbopalladation, transmetalation and reductive elimination of an alkylpalladium(II) intermediate. When applied to 1-naphthyl triflate-tethered vinylalanes, the same reaction conditions mediate stereospecific 1,2-diarylation, leading to 2,3,3a,4-tetrahydro-1H-cyclopenta[def]phenanthrenes in excellent yields. The influence of DABCO, tether length and solvent polarity was studied. Selective tandem arylation/1,2-methyl migration could also be achieved in non-polar solvent in absence of Lewis base. While steric properties took precedence over electronic considerations when inducing product selection, preagostic C-H···Pd interactions were postulated to facilitate 1,3-metal migration in the production of 1H-cyclopenta[def]phenanthrene derivatives.

Although α-keto carbocations have been demonstrated to be viable intermediates in solvolysis reactions, their applications in synthesis are scarce. These species can be considered to be equivalent to “reversed polarity” enolates and, as such, could be useful for the asymmetric formation of carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom bonds. In principle, facial selectivity in additions to α-keto carbocations may be induced using easily removed ester, amide, or imide chiral auxiliaries. Efforts to achieve such diastereoselective SN1 reactions of α-keto carbocations are described herein.

Although α-keto carbocations have been demonstrated to be viable intermediates in solvolysis reactions, their applications in synthesis are scarce. These species can be considered to be equivalent to “reversed polarity” enolates and, as such, could be useful for the asymmetric formation of carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom bonds. In principle, facial selectivity in additions to α-keto carbocations may be induced using easily removed ester, amide, or imide chiral auxiliaries. Efforts to achieve such diastereoselective SN1 reactions of α-keto carbocations are described herein.