Der induzierbare Kostimulator ICOS ist ein zu CD28 strukturell und funktionell verwandtes Molekül, das eine wichtige regulatorische Rolle bei der T-Zelleffektorfunktion spielt. Eine ICOS-Defizienz beim Mensch manifestiert sich in einer schweren Störung des humoralen Immunsystems. Eine murine ICOS-Defizienz führt ebenfalls zu einer Beeinträchtigung der T-Zell-abhängigen humoralen Immunantwort, bei der kleinere oder komplett fehlende Keimzentren zu beobachten sind. Vielfältige in vitro und in vivo Studien führten diese Phänomene auf die beeinträchtigte Regulation von Kommunikationsmolekülen der Zelloberfläche und der Zytokinexpression durch ICOS-defiziente T-Zellen zurück. Ein Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, mit Hilfe von ICOS KO Mäusen den Einfluss von ICOS auf die B-Zellentwicklung genauer zu untersuchen. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass ICOS erst in der späten Phase der B-Zellentwicklung eine Rolle spielt, da der Interaktionspartner von ICOS erst auf transitionellen B-Zellen der Milz exprimiert wird. Durch die Etablierung eines in vivo adoptiven T-B Transfermodells konnte die Rolle von ICOS erstmalig bei der T-B Kooperation in den frühen Phasen der Immunantwort auf der Ebene Antigen-spezifischer T- und B-Zellen aufgeklärt werden. Dabei konnte beobachtet werden, dass eine ICOS-Defizienz einen dramatischen Einfluss auf die B-Zellexpansion und B-Zellproliferation hat. Zum ersten Mal konnte in vivo gezeigt werden, dass ICOS bei der T-B Kooperation eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Regulation diverser Oberflächenmarker der B-Zellen spielt, wodurch die B-Zellaktivierung, B-Zellproliferation und B-Zelldifferenzierung bei der Keimzentrums- und Plasmazellreaktion beeinflusst werden. Histologische Analysen zeigten, dass bei einer ICOS-Defizienz follikuläre T-Helferzellen nicht in die Keimzentrumsumgebung einwandern und daher keine T-Zellhilfe für die B-Zellen anbieten können. Dadurch kann die Keimzentrumsreaktion nicht weiter aufrechterhalten werden und eine Ausbildung von kleineren Keimzentren ist die Folge. Weiterhin konnte beobachtet werden, dass eine fehlende ICOS-Interaktion zwischen T- und B-Zellen zu einer Störung der Plasmazellgenerierung führt, wodurch auch die Mengen an messbaren Serumimmunglobulinen beeinflusst werden. Eine erhöhte Gabe von ICOS-defizienten T-Zellen kann diese Effekte nicht vollständig ausgleichen. Daher ist erkennbar, dass ICOS eine Vielzahl von zusätzlichen Faktoren beeinflusst, die für die ICOS-abhängigen B-Zelleffekte verantwortlich sind. / The inducible costimulator ICOS, structural and functional similar to CD28, plays an important regulatory role in T cell receptor function. The ICOS deficiency in humans is described as a severe dysfunction of the humoral immune response, resulting in dramatic reduced B cell numbers and impaired antibody response against pathogens. The murine ICOS-deficiency also leads to a disturbed T cell dependent immune response resulting in a reduced germinal center formation. Various in vitro and in vivo studies attributes this phenomenon to impaired upregulation of cell surface communication molecules and cytokine synthesis by ICOS-deficient T cells. In this work the investigations with ICOS KO mice should clarify the impact of ICOS in B cell development. As observed, ICOS can only play a role in the late phase B cell development, because the interaction partner is expressed on transitional B cells in the spleen. The establishment of an in vivo adoptive T-B transfer system could determine for the first time the role of ICOS in T-B cooperation in early immune response stages on antigen specific T and B cell levels. As shown, ICOS deficiency influences in a dramatic extend the B cell expansion and B cell proliferation. For the first time in vivo, we could demonstrate that ICOS plays a significant role by influencing the regulation of various B cell surface markers, which affects the B cell activation, B cell proliferation and B differentiation in germinal center or plasma cell reaction. Histological investigations revealed in the ICOS-deficiency that follicular T helper cells could not migrate into the germinal center microenvironment and therefore could not provide T cell help for B cells. As a result, the germinal center reaction could not maintained and therefore the formation of little germinal centers occurred. The missing interaction between T and B cells leads to a dysfunction in plasma cell generation and also influences the detectable amounts of serum immunglobulines. An administration of higher ICOS KO T cell numbers could not fully compensate these effects. Therefore, ICOS bias multitudes of additional factors, which are responsible for the ICOS dependent B cell effects.

T-Helfer(Th)-Lymphozyten spielen aufgrund ihrer Expression von Zytokinen eine zentrale Rolle in der Regulation von Immunantworten. Durch die Zytokine fördern die Th-Zellen die Rekrutierung und Aktivierung von Zellen des angeborenen Immunsystems, den Immunglobulin-Klassenwechsel von B-Zellen und ihre Differenzierung zu antikörper-sezernierenden Plasmazellen. Welche Zytokine eine aktivierte Th-Zelle exprimiert hängt von instruktiven Signalen ab, die sie in der Regel von antigen-präsentierenden Signalen bekommt. Mit den instruktiven Signalen wird ein ganzes Differenzierungsprogramm in den Th-Zellen initiiert, welches am Ende zu einer epigenetischen Prägung des Effektorprogramms führt, sodass die Th-Zelle auch bei nachfolgenden Aktivierungen die gleichen Funktionen ausführt. In dieser Arbeit wurde untersucht wie diese Differenzierungsprogramme zur Pathogenese von chronischen Entzündungen beitragen und wie eine chronische Entzündung wiederum die Differenzierung der Th-Zellen beeinflusst. Des Weiteren haben wir molekulare Adaptationen identifiziert, die selektiv in chronisch aktivierten entzündungsfördernden Th Typ 1 (Th1)-Zellen hochgeregelt werden. Diese Adaptationen, wie die Expression von Twist1 und Hopx, fördern das Überleben der Th1-Zellen am Ort der Entzündung und könnten zur Perpetuation der Entzündung entscheidend beitragen. Zusammengenommen zeigen unsere Daten, dass Th-Zellen durch ihre pro-inflammatorische Prägung zwar gut gerüstet sind uns gegen Pathogene zu schützen, im Falle einer Autoreaktivität aber auch Immunpathologie und chronische Entzündungen auslösen können. Allerdings weisen unsere Arbeiten auch daraufhin, dass selektive Anpassungen der Th-Zellen an eine chronische Entzündung auch gleichzeitig Ansatzpunkte für ein therapeutisches Eingreifen bei chronisch-entzündlichen Krankheiten darstellen. / T helper (Th) lymhocytes play a central role in the regulation of immune responses. Through the expression of cytokines, Th cells orchestrate the recruitment and activation of cells of the innate immune system, and induce antibody class switch recombination in B lymphocytes and their differentiation into antibody-secreting plasma cells. Which cytokines an activated Th cell expresses is dependent on instructive signals, the Th cells receives from antigen-presenting cells. Such instructive signals initiate a differentiation program, which in the end leads to the epigenetic imprinting of the effector program, ensuring that the Th cell execute the same functions in subsequent activations. In this thesis, we investigated how such differentiation programs contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic inflammation and how chronic inflammation, in turn, affects the differentiation of the Th cells. Furthermore, we have identified molecular adaptations, which are selectively upregulated in chronically activated pro-inflammatory Th type 1 (Th1) cells. Such adaptations, like the upregulation of Twist1 and Hopx, promote the survival of Th1 cells in the inflamed tissue and could thereby contribute to the perpetuation of the inflammation. Taken together, our data show that Th cells with a pro-inflammatory imprint are well equipped to protect us against pathogens, in case of autoimmunity, however, cause immune pathology and chronic inflammation. At the same time, our work also shows that the selective adaptations of Th cells to chronic inflammation could also be promising targets for novel therapies for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.

Higher-order genome organization is important for the regulation of gene expression by bringing different cis-regulatory elements and promoters in proximity. The establishment and maintenance of long-range chromatin interactions occur in response to cellular and environmental cues with the binding of transcription factors and chromatin modifiers. Understanding the organization of the nucleus in differentiation and cancer has been a long standing challenge and is still not well-understood. In this thesis, I explore the dynamic changes in the higher-order chromatin structure in bone differentiation and breast cancer. First, we show dynamic chromatin contact between a distal regulatory element and the promoter of Runx2 gene, which encodes the Runtrelated transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) that is essential for bone development. Next, via using a genome-wide approach, we show that breast cancer cells have altered long-range chromatin contacts among small, gene-rich chromosomes and at telomeres when compared with mammary epithelial cells. Furthermore, we assess the changes in nuclear structure and gene expression of breast cancer cells following Runt-related transcription factor 1 (RUNX1) deficiency, an event frequently observed in breast cancer. Finally, I present the role of the central ATPase subunit of the SWI/SNF complex, SMARCA4 (BRG1), in mediating nuclear structure and gene expression. Taken together, the research presented in this thesis reveals novel insight and paradigm for the dynamic changes in disease and differentiation, as well as uncovers previously unidentified roles for two chromatin regulatory proteins, RUNX1 and SMARCA4.

Regulation of gene expression comprises a wide range of mechanisms that control the abundance of gene products in response to environmental and developmental changes. These biological processes can be modulated by posttranslational modifications including arginine methylation. Among the enzymes that catalyze the methylation, protein arginine methyltransferase 7 (PRMT7) is known to modify histones to repress gene expression. Jumonji domain-containing protein 6 (JMJD6) is a putative arginine demethylase that potentially antagonize PRMT7. However, the biological significance of these enzymes is not well understood. This thesis summarizes the investigation of both PRMT7 and JMJD6 in cell culture models for adipocyte differentiation. The results suggest that PRMT7 is not required for the differentiation, whereas JMJD6 is necessary for the differentiation by promoting the expression of the lineage determining transcription factors peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and CCAAT/enhancerbinding proteins (C/EBPs). The underlying mechanisms by which JMJD6 regulate differentiation involve transcriptional and post-transcriptional control of gene expression. Unexpectedly, the adipogenic function of JMJD6 is independent of its enzymatic activity. Collectively, the present research reveals a novel role of JMJD6 in gene regulation during the differentiation of adipocytes.

The Tec kinase ITK is activated by TCR stimulation and also required for TCR downstream signaling. Previous studies have reported differential roles of ITK and another Tec family kinase RLK in CD4+ TH differentiation and effector function. However, these findings are confounded by the complex T cell developmental defects in Itk-/- mice. Furthermore, the function of ITK in tissue-resident T cells in the intestine and anti-viral immune response to a persistent infection has not been studied previously. In addition to T cells, recent studies have indicated an expression of ITK in ILC2, but not in other ILC subsets. Yet, the role of ITK in ILC2 has not been characterized. Here, I have examined the role of ITK and RLK in CD4+ TH subsets using a small molecule inhibitor PRN694. I found that PRN694 impaired TH1 differentiation in vitro, and PRN694 administration prevented TH1-mediated colitis progression in vivo. In an MHV68 infection model, Itk-/- mice failed to control viral replication in the intestine, while gut-homing of CD8+ T cells was greatly impaired. Finally, I found that ILC2 number was markedly reduced in the intestine of Itk-/- mice. Gut-specific defect of Itk-/- ILC2 is associated with a low availability of IL-2 in the intestine of Itk-/- mice. Collectively, these data suggest that ITK is important in T cell migration to the intestine and ILC2 homeostasis in the intestine, thereby contributing to the protective response to a latent virus and intestinal tissue homeostasis.

Somatic cells could be reprogrammed into an ES-like state called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) by expression of four transcriptional factors: Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and cMyc. iPSCs have full potentials to generate cells of all lineages and have become a valuable tool to understand human development and disease pathogenesis. However, reprogramming process suffers from extremely low efficiency and the molecular mechanism remains poorly understood. This dissertation is focused on studying the role of small non-coding RNAs (microRNAs) and kinases during the reprogramming process in order to understand how it is regulated and why only a small percentage of cells could achieve fully reprogrammed state. We demonstrate that loss of microRNA biogenesis pathway abolished the potential of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) to be reprogrammed and revealed that several clusters of mES-specific microRNAs were highly induced by four factors during early stage of reprogramming. Among them, miR-93 and 106b were further confirmed to enhance iPSC generation by promoting mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET) and targeting key p53 and TGFβ pathway components: p21 and Tgfbr2, which are important barrier genes to the process. To expand our view of microRNAs function during reprogramming, a systematic approach was used to analyze microRNA expression profile in iPSC-enriched early cell population. From a list of candiate microRNAs, miR-135b was found to be most highly induced and promoted reprogramming. Subsequent analysis revealed that it targeted an extracellular matrix network by directly modulating key regulator Wisp1. By regulating several downstream ECM genes including Tgfbi, Nov, Dkk2 and Igfbp5, Wisp1 coordinated IGF, TGFβ and Wnt signaling pathways, all of which were strongly involved in the reprogramming process. Therefore, we have identified a microRNA-regulated network that modulates somatic cell reprogramming, involving both intracellular and extracellular networks. In addition to microRNAs, in order to identify new regulators and signaling pathways of reprogramming, we utilized small molecule kinase inhibitors. A collection of 244 kinase inhibitors were screened for both enhancers and inhibitors of the process. We identified that inhibition of several novel kinases including p38, IP3K and Aurora kinase could significantly enhance iPSC generation, the effects of which were also confirmed by RNAi of specific target genes. Further characterization revealed that inhibition of Aurora A kinase enhanced phosphorylation and inactivation of GSK3β, a process mediated by Akt kinase. All together, in this dissertation, we have identified novel role of both small non-coding RNAs and kinases in regulating the reprogramming of MEFs to iPSCs.

How do embryos develop with such poise from a single zygote to multiple cells with different identities, and yet survive? At the four-cell stage of the C. elegans embryo, only the blastomere EMS adopts the endo-mesoderm identity. This fate requires SKN-1, the master regulator of endoderm and mesoderm differentiation. However, in the absence of the RNA binding protein POS-1, EMS fails to fulfill its fate despite the presence of SKN-1. pos-1(-) embryos die gutless. Conversely, the RNA binding protein MEX-5 prevents ectoderm blastomeres from adopting the endo-mesoderm identity by repressing SKN-1. mex-5(-) embryos die with excess muscle at the expense of skin and neurons. Through forward and reverse genetics, I found that genes gld-3/Bicaudal C, cytoplasmic adenylase gld-2, cye-1/Cyclin E, glp-1/Notch and the novel gene neg-1 are suppressors that restore gut development despite the absence of pos-1. Both POS-1 and MEX-5 bind the 3’UTR of neg-1 mRNA and its poly(A) tail requires GLD-3/2 for elongation. Moreover, neg-1 requires MEX-5 for its expression in anterior ectoderm blastomeres and is repressed in EMS by POS-1. Most neg-1(-) embryos die with defects in anterior ectoderm development where the mesoderm transcription factor pha-4 becomes ectopically expressed. This lethality is reduced by the concomitant loss of med- 1, a key mesoderm-promoting transcription factor. Thus the endo-mesoderm identity of EMS is determined by the presence of SKN- 1 and the POS-1 repression of neg-1, whose expression is promoted by MEX-5. Together they promote the anterior ectoderm identity by repressing mesoderm differentiation. Such checks and balances ensure the vital plurality of cellular identity without the lethal tyranny of a single fate.

CD8+ T cell differentiation is a complex process that requires integration of signals from the TCR, co-stimulatory molecules and cytokines. Ligation of the peptide-MHC complex with the cognate TCR initiates a downstream signaling cascade of which the IL-2 inducible T-cell kinase (ITK) is a key component. Loss of ITK results in a measured reduction in T cell activation. Consequently, Itk deficient mice have defects in thymic selection, CD8+ T cell expansion and differentiation in response to virus infections, and generate a unique population of innate-like CD8+ T cells. The mechanisms that translate TCR and ITK-derived signals into distinct gene transcription programs that regulate CD8+ T cell differentiation are not defined. Our microarray screen identified IRF4 as a potential transcription factor mediating the differentiation of innate-like T cells, and antiviral CD8+ T cell in response to acute and chronic LCMV infections. Innate-like CD8+ T cells are characterized by their high expression of CD44, CD122, CXCR3, and the transcription factor Eomesodermin (Eomes). One component of this altered development is a non-CD8+ T cell-intrinsic role for IL-4. We show that IRF4 expression is induced upon TCR signaling and is dependent on ITK activity. In contrast to WT cells, activation of IRF4-deficient CD8+ T cells leads to rapid and robust expression of Eomes, which is further enhanced by IL-4 stimulation. These data indicate that ITK signaling promotes IRF4 up-regulation following CD8+ T cell activation and that this signaling xii pathway normally suppresses Eomes expression, thereby regulating the differentiation pathway of CD8+ T cells. ITK deficient mice also have reduced expansion of CD8+ T cells in response to acute LCMV infections. We show that IRF4 is transiently upregulated to differing levels in murine CD8+ T cells, based on the strength of TCR signaling. In turn, IRF4 controls the magnitude of the CD8+ T cell response to acute virus infection in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, the expression of key transcription factors such as T cell factor 1 and Eomesodermin are highly sensitive to graded levels of IRF4. In contrast, T-bet expression is less dependent on IRF4 levels and is influenced by the nature of the infection. These data indicate that IRF4 is a key component that translates the strength of TCR signaling into a graded response of virus-specific CD8+ T cells. The data from these studies indicated a pivotal role of IRF4 in regulating the expression of T-bet and Eomes. During persistent LCMV infections, CD8+ T cells differentiate into T-bethi and Eomeshi subsets, both of which are required for efficient viral control. We show that TCR signal strength regulates the relative expression of T-bet and Eomes in antigen-specific CD8+ T cells by modulating levels of IRF4. Reduced IRF4 expression results in skewing of this ratio in favor of Eomes, leading to lower proportions and numbers of T-bet+ Eomes- precursors and poor control of LCMV Clone 13 infection. Altering this ratio in favor of T-bet xiii restores the differentiation of T-bet+ Eomes- precursors and the protective balance of T-bet to Eomes required for efficient viral control. These data highlight a critical role for IRF4 in regulating protective anti-viral CD8+ T cell responses by ensuring a balanced ratio of T-bet to Eomes, leading to the ultimate control of this chronic viral infection.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Pyk2: Potential Regulator of Post-Menopausal Bone Loss H.W. LARGURA1,2*, P. ELENISTE2, S. HUANG2, S. LIU1, M. ALLEN3, A. BRUZZANITI2. 1Indiana University School of Dentistry Department Orthodontics and Oral Facial Development, 2Indiana University School of Dentistry Department of Oral Biology, 3Indiana University School of Medicine Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA Osteoporosis is a pathologic condition of bone, commonly found in post-menopausal women, which occurs from an imbalance between bone formation and resorption. Following menopause, the bone resorbing activity of osteoclasts exceeds bone formation by osteoblasts, resulting in decreased trabecular and cortical bone and a subsequent decrease in bone mass. Reduced bone mass increases the risk of pathologic fracture of bones. Due to adverse effects associated with current treatment protocols for bone loss, alternative treatment modalities with reduced adverse effects are needed. Estrogen plays a role in maintaining balance in the bone remodeling cycle by controlling remodeling activation, osteoblast and osteoclast numbers, and their respective effectiveness in formation and resorption. With declining estrogen levels, this elegantly balanced interaction is altered and bone resorption exceeds bone formation, resulting in bone loss and increased bone fragility. Pyk2 is a protein tyrosine kinase that plays an important role in regulating bone resorption by osteoclasts, as well as osteoblast proliferation and differentiation. Deletion of the Pyk2 gene in mice leads to an increase in bone mass, in part due to dysfunctional osteoclast and osteoblast activity. In this study, we examined the role of Pyk2 in the effects of estrogen on bone mass. We used wild type (WT) and Pyk2 knock-out (KO) mice that had been ovariectomized (OVX) and treated with or without estrogen (E2)-releasing pellets. Control mice included sham OVX surgery receiving placebo pellet. We found that deletion of Pyk2 conferred increased bone mass in sham, OVX and OVX+E2 mice. In addition, Pyk2 KO mice supplemented with 17estradiol exhibited a marked increase in bone volume/trabecular volume, trabecular number, and trabecular thickness, but not cortical bone parameters compared to WT mice. Results of this study provide evidence for the role of Pyk2 in the effects of estrogen on bone mass. Understanding the role of Pyk2 in bone could lead to the development of new pharmaceutical targets for the treatment of bone loss associated with osteoporosis.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Introduction: Regenerative endodontic procedures (REPs) are a type of endodontic treatment aimed at replacing damaged tooth structures, including dentin and root structures, as well as cells of the pulp-dentin complex. Double antibiotic paste (DAP) has been shown to be efficacious in achieving disinfection of the root canal system while minimizing cytotoxicity to dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs). Hydroxyapatite (HA) is an extracellular, mineralized component of bone that has shown much promise as a scaffold in the field of regenerative medicine. Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of HA in a DAP loaded methylcellulose (MC) carrier on the differentiation and mineral deposition of DPSC over time. Materials and Methods: DPSCs were plated in 24-well plates with culture media. The following day, semi-permeable 0.1 m chambers were inserted into the wells to separate the reservoirs and permit delivery of medicaments. 100 L treatment paste composed of MC with 1% DAP and either 0.5% or 1.0% nano-HA was added, followed by additional culture media. After 3 days of treatment, medicaments were removed and DPSCs were cultured for an additional 9 days with replacement of media every 3-4 days. At Day 12, DPSCs were evaluated for alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity using a biochemical assay and mineral deposition using an Alizarin Red S Ca2+ staining assay (4 wells/group). Comparisons between groups were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a 5% significance level used for all tests. Results: A trend towards increased ALP and mineral deposition activity was noted among the groups with HA added to DAP with MC. Although these trends were not statistically significant, a trend towards increased ALP and mineral deposition was observed after 3-day medicament exposure. The results were similar to previous findings using 7-day medicament treatments. Conclusion: The addition of HA showed a trend towards improved differentiation and mineral deposition of DPSCs compared to DAP with MC. Although additional studies are required, these results showed suggest that even with a shortened treatment time, increased differentiation and mineral deposition of DPSCs may be possible. This study provides additional support that low concentration DAP in a MC carrier has potential application in regenerative endodontic procedures. The novel addition of HA may provide additional osteogenic potential.